Teeth (film)
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Teeth
Theatrical release poster
Directed by Mitchell Lichtenstein
Produced by Richard E. Chapla Jr.
Mitchell Lichtenstein
Joyce M. Pierpoline
Written by Mitchell Lichtenstein
Starring Jess Weixler
Hale Appleman
John Hensley
Music by Robert Miller
Cinematography Wolfgang Held
Editing by Joe Landauer
Distributed by Roadside Attractions
Release date(s) January 19, 2007 (Sundance)
January 18, 2008
Running time 94 minutes
Country USA
Language English
Budget $2,000,000
Gross revenue $1,875,335
Teeth is a horror-black comedy film written and directed by Mitchell Lichtenstein, about a girl who has teeth in her vagina. It premiered January 19, 2007 at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival in the independent drama category. It was released on DVD in the US on May 6, 2008 by Dimension Extreme.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Plot
* 2 Cast
* 3 Release
* 4 Critical reception
o 4.1 Sundance
o 4.2 Additional Awards
* 5 References
* 6 External links
[edit] Plot
Dawn O’Keefe (Jess Weixler) is a teenage spokesperson for a Christian Abstinence group called The Promise. She attends groups with her two friends, Gwen (Julia Garro) and Phil (Adam Wagner). One evening after giving her speech talking about the ring those in the group wear and what it means she is introduced to Tobey (Hale Appleman) and finds him attractive.
The four begin going out as a group and Dawn has fantasies of marrying Tobey, although after acknowledging the attraction they agree that they cannot spend time together. Soon after they give in and meet at a local swimming hole. After swimming together they go in to a cave to get warm and begin kissing. Tobey then forces himself on Dawn, in the panic her vagina (DVD) bites off his penis. She flees the scene, leaving him to bleed out. After a Promise meeting, she meets her classmate Ryan (Ashley Springer) at a dance, they talk and he drops her off home.
Dawn researches Vagina dentata and realises she may have it and then visits a gynaecologist Dr. Godfrey (Josh Pais) in an attempt to find out what is happening to her. Finding out that she is a virgin he attempts to take advantage of her by saying he is performing a test, when what he is really doing is molesting her. She panics and her vagina bites off the fingers on his right hand. He screams “vagina dentata” in his pain. On her way back she sees someone driving in Tobey's car and she goes back to visit the pool. When she gets there she sees the police bringing up Tobey's body. At home her ill mother Kim O'Keefe(Vivienne Benesch) collapses, but Dawn's step-brother, Brad (John Hensley) and his girlfriend Melanie (Nicole Swahn) continue to have sex while she lies on the floor. Kim is taken to hospital.
She goes to Ryan and the two successfully have sex. The following morning they have sex again, but mid-coitus Ryan’s friend calls and Dawn learns that he had a wager on having sex with her. In her anger her vagina bites off his penis, and she leaves him to call his mother for help.
Dawn learns her mother has died, and after her step-father Bill O'Keefe (Lenny Von Dohlen) attempts to throw Brad out he sets his dog on him. Dawn meets her step-father and Melanie at the hospital and emboldened by her power she goes back home to seek revenge. Dawn admits her feelings for her step-brother and they engage in sex. In the middle of the act Brad recalls when he was younger and being bitten on the finger by Dawn, he remembers that it wasn’t her mouth that bit him. As he realises this Dawn’s vagina bites off his penis. She releases it on the ground and Brad’s dog eats it, spitting out the glans and Prince Albert piercing. Dawn leaves him to bleed out.
Dawn cycles away from home, but her bike sustains a puncture so she begins hitch hiking. She gets a lift from an old man (Doyle Carter) but when she reaches the next gas station and tries to get out he locks the doors. He licks his lips as if to ask for a sexual favor to release her, Dawn looks towards camera and gives a kinky smile.
[edit] Cast
* Jess Weixler as Dawn O'Keefe
* John Hensley as Brad Swanson O'Keefe
* Josh Pais as Dr. Godfrey
* Hale Appleman as Tobey
* Lenny Von Dohlen as Bill O'Keefe
* Vivienne Benesch as Kim O'Keefe
* Ashley Springer as Ryan
* Julia Garro as Gwen
* Nicole Swahn as Melanie
* Adam Wagner as Phil
[edit] Release
The film premiered January 19, 2007 at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival.
It was also shown at the
* Berlin International Film Festival,
* Nantucket Film Festival,
* Sydney International Film Festival,
* Melbourne International Film Festival,
* London FrightFest Film Festival,
* Deauville Festival of American Cinema,
* Hamptons International Film Festival,
* Auckland International Film Festival.
It opened in limited release in the United States on January 18, 2008.[1] The film was released on DVD on May 6, 2008.
[edit] Critical reception
The film received mostly positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 81% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 59 reviews — with the consensus that the film is "smart, original, and horrifically funny."[2] Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 57 out of 100, based on 22 reviews.[3]
[edit] Sundance
Reaction from the 2007 Sundance Film Festival was positive, with Cinematical critic Scott Weinberg saying, "Teeth is precisely the sort of genre movie that we need to see more of."[4] Adrienne Shelly Foundation artistic director Mystelle Brabbée declared it "one of the most talked-about films at the Sundance Film Festival this year".[5]
Jess Weixler won the Special Jury Prize for Dramatic Performance (and tied with Tamara Podemski from the film Four Sheets to the Wind).[6]
[edit] Additional Awards
Weixler and Hensley were honored at Spike TV's 2008 Scream Awards. The pair won the award for "Most Memorable Mutilation" for "Penis Bitten Off By Vagina With Teeth"
[edit] References
1. ^ "Teeth (2007/I) - Release dates". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 2008-01-19.
2. ^ "Teeth - Movie Reviews, Trailers, Pictures - Rotten Tomatoes". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved on 2008-05-15.
3. ^ "Teeth (2008): Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved on 2008-05-15.
4. ^ "Sundance Review: Teeth", Cinematical (2007-01-21). Retrieved on 24 January 2007.
5. ^ Burnham, Gabriella (2007-11-04). "2007 Film Festival focus centers on female screenwriters", The Inquirer and Mirror. Retrieved on 17 November 2007.
6. ^ "2007 Sundance Film Festival award winners". The Salt Lake Tribune (2007-01-28). Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teeth_(film)
Minggu, 30 November 2008
Tooth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Semi-protected
"Teeth" redirects here. For the film, see Teeth (film).
Teeth
An adult human's teeth.
CGI posterior view of teeth taken from inside mouth
Dorlands/Elsevier Tooth
Teeth (singular, Tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or defense. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness.
Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing. Carnivores, on the other hand, need canines to kill and tear meat.
Mammals are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby," "milk," "primary" or "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.
Some animals develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont) while others develop many sets (polyphyodont). Sharks, for example, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, maintaining relatively constant length. Many rodents, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig[verification needed], have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Anatomy
* 2 Parts
o 2.1 Enamel
o 2.2 Dentin
o 2.3 Cementum
o 2.4 Pulp
* 3 Development
* 4 Eruption
* 5 Supporting structures
o 5.1 Periodontal ligaments
o 5.2 Alveolar bone
o 5.3 Gingiva
* 6 Tooth decay
o 6.1 Plaque
o 6.2 Caries (Cavities)
* 7 Tooth care
* 8 Restorations
* 9 Abnormalities
o 9.1 Digestive
+ 9.1.1 Alteration during tooth development
+ 9.1.2 Destruction after development
+ 9.1.3 Discoloration
+ 9.1.4 Alteration of eruption
o 9.2 Developmental
+ 9.2.1 Abnormality in number
+ 9.2.2 Abnormality in size
+ 9.2.3 Abnormality in shape
+ 9.2.4 Abnormality in structure
* 10 Non-human animals
* 11 See also
o 11.1 Lists
* 12 References
* 13 External links
Anatomy
A third molar.
Main article: Dental anatomy
The bottom teeth are used more for the grinding of food and the top front teeth are mainly used for biting.
Dental anatomy is a field of anatomy dedicated to the study of tooth structures. The development, appearance, and classification of teeth fall within its field of study, though dental occlusion, or contact among teeth, does not. Dental anatomy is also a taxonomical science as it is concerned with the naming of teeth and their structures. This information serves a practical purpose for dentists, enabling them to easily identify teeth and structures during treatment.
The anatomic crown of a tooth is the area covered in enamel above the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[3] The majority of the crown is composed of dentin with the pulp chamber in the center.[4] The crown is within bone before eruption.[5] After eruption, it is almost always visible. The anatomic root is found below the cementoenamel junction and is covered with cementum. As with the crown, dentin composes most of the root, which normally have pulp canals. A tooth may have multiple roots or just one root. Canines and most premolars, except for maxillary (upper) first premolars, usually have one root. Maxillary first premolars and mandibular molars usually have two roots. Maxillary molars usually have three roots. Additional roots are referred to as supernumerary roots.
Models of human teeth as they exist within the alveolar bone.
Humans usually have 20 primary teeth (also called deciduous, baby, or milk teeth) and 32 permanent teeth. Among primary teeth, 10 are found in the (upper) maxilla and the other 10 in the (lower) mandible. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, and molars. In the primary set of teeth, there are two types of incisors, centrals and laterals, and two types of molars, first and second. All primary teeth are replaced with permanent counterparts except for molars, which are replaced by permanent premolars. Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla with the other 16 in the mandible. The maxillary teeth are the maxillary central incisor, maxillary lateral incisor, maxillary canine, maxillary first premolar, maxillary second premolar, maxillary first molar, maxillary second molar, and maxillary third molar. The mandibular teeth are the mandibular central incisor, mandibular lateral incisor, mandibular canine, mandibular first premolar, mandibular second premolar, mandibular first molar, mandibular second molar, and mandibular third molar. Third molars are commonly called "wisdom teeth" and may never erupt into the mouth or form at all. If any additional teeth form, for example, fourth and fifth molars, which are rare, they are referred to as supernumerary teeth.[6]
Most teeth have identifiable features that distinguish them from others. There are several different notation systems to refer to a specific tooth. The three most commons systems are the FDI World Dental Federation notation, the universal numbering system, and Palmer notation method. The FDI system is used worldwide, and the universal is used widely in the United States.
Parts
Section of a human molar
Enamel
Main article: Tooth enamel
Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body and is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.[7] It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material composing the rest.[8] The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[9]
Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate.[10] The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness.[11] Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support.[10] Unlike dentin and bone, enamel does not contain collagen. Instead, it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions.[12]
Dentin
Main article: Dentin
Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber. It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp.[13] The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis. The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70% inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10% water by weight.[14] Because it is softer than enamel, it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated, but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth.
Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. Dentin has microscopic channels, called dentinal tubules, which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border.[15] The diameter of these tubules range from 2.5 μm near the pulp, to 1.2 μm in the midportion, and 900 nm near the dentino-enamel junction.[16] Although they may have tiny side-branches, the tubules do not intersect with each other. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined.
Cementum
Main article: Cementum
Cementum is a specialized bony substance covering the root of a tooth.[13] It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root.[17] The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.[18]
Pulp
Main article: Pulp (tooth)
The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue.[14] This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root.[19] Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts, which initiate the formation of dentin.[14] Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts, preodontoblasts, macrophages and T lymphocytes.[20] The pulp is commonly called "the nerve" of the tooth.
Development
Main article: Tooth development
Radiograph of lower right third, second, and first molars in different stages of development.
Tooth development is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells, grow, and erupt into the mouth. Although many diverse species have teeth, non-human tooth development is largely the same as in humans. For human teeth to have a healthy oral environment, enamel, dentin, cementum, and the periodontium must all develop during appropriate stages of fetal development. Primary (baby) teeth start to form between the sixth and eighth weeks in utero, and permanent teeth begin to form in the twentieth week in utero.[21] If teeth do not start to develop at or near these times, they will not develop at all.
A significant amount of research has focused on determining the processes that initiate tooth development. It is widely accepted that there is a factor within the tissues of the first branchial arch that is necessary for the development of teeth.[22]
Tooth development is commonly divided into the following stages: the bud stage, the cap, the bell, and finally maturation. The staging of tooth development is an attempt to categorize changes that take place along a continuum; frequently it is difficult to decide what stage should be assigned to a particular developing tooth.[22] This determination is further complicated by the varying appearance of different histologic sections of the same developing tooth, which can appear to be different stages.
The tooth bud (sometimes called the tooth germ) is an aggregation of cells that eventually forms a tooth. It is organized into three parts: the enamel organ, the dental papilla and the dental follicle.[23] The enamel organ is composed of the outer enamel epithelium, inner enamel epithelium, stellate reticulum and stratum intermedium.[23] These cells give rise to ameloblasts, which produce enamel and the reduced enamel epithelium. The growth of cervical loop cells into the deeper tissues forms Hertwig's Epithelial Root Sheath, which determines a tooth's root shape. The dental papilla contains cells that develop into odontoblasts, which are dentin-forming cells.[23] Additionally, the junction between the dental papilla and inner enamel epithelium determines the crown shape of a tooth.[24] The dental follicle gives rise to three important entities: cementoblasts, osteoblasts, and fibroblasts. Cementoblasts form the cementum of a tooth. Osteoblasts give rise to the alveolar bone around the roots of teeth. Fibroblasts develop the periodontal ligaments which connect teeth to the alveolar bone through cementum.[25]
Eruption
Main article: Tooth eruption
Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age. These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts. This stage, during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth, is known as the mixed stage. The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth.
There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption. One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth.[26] Another, known as the cushioned hammock theory, resulted from microscopic study of teeth, which was thought to show a ligament around the root. It was later discovered that the "ligament" was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide.[27] Currently, the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process.[28]
The onset of primary tooth loss has been found to correlate strongly with somatic and psychological criteria of school readiness.[29][30]
Supporting structures
Histologic slide of tooth erupting into the mouth.
A: tooth
B: gingiva
C: bone
D: periodontal ligaments
The periodontium is the supporting structure of a tooth, helping to attach the tooth to surrounding tissues and to allow sensations of touch and pressure.[31] It consists of the cementum, periodontal ligaments, alveolar bone, and gingiva. Of these, cementum is the only one that is a part of a tooth. Periodontal ligaments connect the alveolar bone to the cementum. Alveolar bone surrounds the roots of teeth to provide support and creates what is commonly called an alveolus, or "socket". Lying over the bone is the gingiva or gum, which is readily visible in the mouth.
Periodontal ligaments
The periodontal ligament is a specialized connective tissue that attaches the cementum of a tooth to the alveolar bone. This tissue covers the root of the tooth within the bone. Each ligament has a width of 0.15 - 0.38 mm, but this size decreases over time.[32] The functions of the periodontal ligaments include attachment of the tooth to the bone, support for the tooth, formation and resorption of bone during tooth movement, sensation, and eruption.[33] The cells of the periodontal ligaments include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, fibroblasts, macrophages, cementoblasts, and epithelial cell rests of Malassez.[34] Consisting of mostly Type I and III collagen, the fibers are grouped in bundles and named according to their location. The groups of fibers are named alveolar crest, horizontal, oblique, periapical, and interradicular fibers.[35] The nerve supply generally enters from the bone apical to the tooth and forms a network around the tooth toward the crest of the gingiva.[36] When pressure is exerted on a tooth, such as during chewing or biting, the tooth moves slightly in its socket and puts tension on the periodontal ligaments. The nerve fibers can then send the information to the central nervous system for interpretation.
Alveolar bone
The alveolar bone is the bone of the jaw which forms the alveolus around teeth.[37] Like any other bone in the human body, alveolar bone is modified throughout life. Osteoblasts create bone and osteoclasts destroy it, especially if force is placed on a tooth.[31] As is the case when movement of teeth is attempted through orthodontics, an area of bone under compressive force from a tooth moving toward it has a high osteoclast level, resulting in bone resorption. An area of bone receiving tension from periodontal ligaments attached to a tooth moving away from it has a high number of osteoblasts, resulting in bone formation.
Gingiva
The gingiva ("gums") is the mucosal tissue that overlays the jaws. There are three different types of epithelium associated with the gingiva: gingival, junctional, and sulcular epithelium. These three types form from a mass of epithelial cells known as the epithelial cuff between the tooth and the mouth.[38] The gingival epithelium is not associated directly with tooth attachment and is visible in the mouth. The junctional epithelium, composed of the basal lamina and hemidesmosomes, forms an attachment to the tooth.[33] The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue on the gingiva which touches but is not attached to the tooth.[39] This leaves a small potential space between the gingiva and tooth which can collect bacteria, plaque, and calculus.
Tooth decay
Plaque
Main article: Dental plaque
Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of various bacteria that form on teeth.[40] If not removed regularly, plaque buildup can lead to dental cavities (caries) or periodontal problems such as gingivitis. Given time, plaque can mineralize along the gingiva, forming tartar. The microorganisms that form the biofilm are almost entirely bacteria (mainly streptococcus and anaerobes), with the composition varying by location in the mouth.[41] Streptococcus mutans is the most important bacteria associated with dental caries.
Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods, especially sugars and starches. In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid, which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel.[13][42] This process, known as "demineralisation", leads to tooth destruction. Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH. This causes 'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria.
Caries (Cavities)
Advanced tooth decay on a premolar.
Main article: Dental caries
Dental caries, also described as "tooth decay" or "dental cavities", is an infectious disease which damages the structures of teeth.[43] The disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Dental caries has a long history, with evidence showing the disease was present in the Bronze, Iron, and Middle ages but also prior to the neolithic period.[44] The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with diet changes.[44][45] Today, caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. In the United States, dental caries is the most common chronic childhood disease, being at least five times more common than asthma.[46] Countries that have experienced an overall decrease in cases of tooth decay continue to have a disparity in the distribution of the disease.[47] Among children in the United States and Europe, 60-80% of cases of dental caries occur in 20% of the population.[48]
Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.[49][50] The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.[51]
Tooth care
Toothbrushes are commonly used to clean teeth.
Main article: Oral hygiene
Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth clean and is a means of preventing dental caries, gingivitis, periodontal disease, bad breath, and other dental disorders. It consists of both professional and personal care. Regular cleanings, usually done by dentists and dental hygienists, remove tartar (mineralized plaque) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, using various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from teeth.
The purpose of cleaning teeth is to remove plaque, which consists mostly of bacteria.[52] Healthcare professionals recommend regular brushing twice a day (in the morning and in the evening, or after meals) in order to prevent formation of plaque and tartar.[51] A toothbrush is able to remove most plaque, excepting areas between teeth. As a result, flossing is also considered a necessity to maintain oral hygiene. When used correctly, dental floss removes plaque from between teeth and at the gum line, where periodontal disease often begins and could develop caries. Electric toothbrushes are not considered more effective than manual brushes for most people.[53] The most important advantage of electric toothbrushes is their ability to aid people with dexterity difficulties, such as those associated with rheumatoid arthritis.
In addition, fluoride therapy is often recommended to protect against dental caries, water fluoridation and fluoride supplements decrease the incidence of dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent dental decay by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel.[54] The incorporated fluoride makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and thus more resistant to decay.[55] Topical fluoride, such as a fluoride toothpaste or mouthwash, is also recommended to protect teeth surfaces. Many dentists include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine cleanings.
Restorations
After a tooth has been damaged or destroyed, restoration of the missing structure can be achieved with a variety of treatments. Restorations may be created from a variety of materials, including glass ionomer, amalgam, gold, porcelain, and composite.[56] Small restorations placed inside a tooth are referred to as "intracoronal restorations". These restorations may be formed directly in the mouth or may be cast using the lost-wax technique, such as for some inlays and onlays. When larger portions of a tooth are lost, an "extracoronal restoration" may be fabricated, such as a crown or a veneer, to restore the involved tooth.
Picture of a restored premolar.
When a tooth is lost, dentures, bridges, or implants may be used as replacements.[57] Dentures are usually the least costly whereas implants are usually the most expensive. Dentures may replace complete arches of the mouth or only a partial number of teeth. Bridges replace smaller spaces of missing teeth and use adjacent teeth to support the restoration. Dental implants may be used to replace a single tooth or a series of teeth. Though implants are the most expensive treatment option, they are often the most desirable restoration because of their aesthetics and function. To improve the function of dentures, implants may be used as support.[58]
Abnormalities
Tooth abnormalities may be categorized according to whether they have environmental or developmental causes.[59] While environmental abnormalities may appear to have an obvious cause, there may not appear to be any known cause for some developmental abnormalities. Environmental forces may affect teeth during development, destroy tooth structure after development, discolor teeth at any stage of development, or alter the course of tooth eruption. Developmental abnormalities most commonly affect the number, size, shape, and structure of teeth.
Digestive
Alteration during tooth development
Tooth abnormalities caused by environmental factors during tooth development have long-lasting effects. Enamel and dentin do not regenerate after they mineralize initially. Enamel hypoplasia is a condition in which the amount of enamel formed is inadequate.[60] This results either in pits and grooves in areas of the tooth or in widespread absence of enamel. Diffuse opacities of enamel does not affect the amount of enamel but changes its appearance. Affected enamel has a different translucency than the rest of the tooth. Demarcated opacities of enamel have sharp boundaries where the translucency decreases and manifest a white, cream, yellow, or brown color. All these may be caused by a systemic event, such as an exanthematous fever.[61] Turner's hypoplasia is a portion of missing or diminished enamel on a permanent tooth usually from a prior infection of a nearby primary tooth. Hypoplasia may also result from antineoplastic therapy. Dental fluorosis is condition which results from ingesting excessive amounts of fluoride and leads to teeth which are spotted, yellow, brown, black or sometimes pitted. Enamel hypoplasia resulting from syphilis is frequently referred to as Hutchinson's teeth, which is considered one part of Hutchinson's triad.[62]
Destruction after development
Tooth destruction from processes other than dental caries is considered a normal physiologic process but may become severe enough to become a pathologic condition. Attrition is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from opposing teeth.[63] Attrition initially affects the enamel and, if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying dentin. Abrasion is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element.[64] If this force begins at the cementoenamel junction, then progression of tooth loss can be rapid since enamel is very thin in this region of the tooth. A common source of this type of tooth wear is excessive force when using a toothbrush. Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin.[65][66] Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the teeth to gastric acids. Another important source of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice. Abfraction is the loss of tooth structure from flexural forces. As teeth flex under pressure, the arrangement of teeth touching each other, known as occlusion, causes tension on one side of the tooth and compression on the other side of the tooth. This is believed to cause V-shaped depressions on the side under tension and C-shaped depressions on the side under compression. When tooth destruction occurs at the roots of teeth, the process is referred to as internal resorption, when caused by cells within the pulp, or external resorption, when caused by cells in the periodontal ligament.
Discoloration
Discoloration of teeth may result from bacteria stains, tobacco, tea, coffee, foods with an abundance of chlorophyll, restorative materials, and medications.[67] Stains from bacteria may cause colors varying from green to black to orange. Green stains also result from foods with chlorophyll or excessive exposure to copper or nickel. Amalgam, a common dental restorative material, may turn adjacent areas of teeth black or gray. Chlorhexidine, a mouthwash, is associated with causing yellow-brown stains near the gingiva on teeth. Systemic disorders also can cause tooth discoloration. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes porphyrins to be deposited in teeth, causing a red-brown coloration. Blue discoloration may occur with alkaptonuria and rarely with Parkinson's disease. Erythroblastosis fetalis and biliary atresia are diseases which may cause teeth to appear green from the deposition of biliverdin. Also, trauma may change a tooth to a pink, yellow, or dark gray color. Pink and red discolorations are also associated in patients with lepromatous leprosy. Some medications, such as tetracycline antibiotics, may become incorporated into the structure of a tooth, causing intrinsic staining of the teeth.
Alteration of eruption
Tooth eruption may be altered by some environmental factors. When eruption is prematurely stopped, the tooth is said to be impacted. The most common cause of tooth impaction is lack of space in the mouth for the tooth.[68] Other causes may be tumors, cysts, trauma, and thickened bone or soft tissue. Ankylosis of a tooth occurs when the tooth has already erupted into the mouth but the cementum or dentin has fused with the alveolar bone. This may cause a person to retain their primary tooth instead of having it replaced by a permanent one.
A technique for altering the natural progression of eruption is employed by orthodontists who wish to delay or speed up the eruption of certain teeth for reasons of space maintenance or otherwise preventing crowding and/or spacing. If a primary tooth is extracted prior to the root of its succeeding permanent tooth reaching ⅓ of its total growth, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be delayed. Conversely, if the roots of the permanent tooth are more than ⅔ complete, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be accelerated. Between ⅓ and ⅔, it is unknown exactly what will occur to the speed of eruption.
Developmental
Abnormality in number
Anodontia is the total lack of tooth development. Hyperdontia is the presence of a higher-than-normal number of teeth, where as Hypodontia is the lack of some teeth. Usually, hypodontia refers to the lack of development of one or more teeth, and oligodontia may be used to describe the absence of 6 or more teeth. Some systemic disorders which may result in hyperdontia include Apert syndrome, Cleidocranial dysostosis, Crouzon syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Gardner syndrome, and Sturge-Weber syndrome.[69] Some systemic disorders which may result in hypodontia include Crouzon syndrome, Ectodermal dysplasia, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and Gorlin syndrome.[70]
Abnormality in size
Microdontia is a condition where teeth are smaller than the usual size, and macrodontia is where teeth are larger than the usual size. Microdontia of a single tooth is more likely to occur in a maxillary lateral incisor. The second most likely tooth to have microdontia are third molars. Macrodontia of all the teeth is known to occur in pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia. It may also occur on one side of the face in cases of hemifacial hyperplasia.
Abnormality in shape
The fusion of two deciduous teeth.
Gemination occurs when a developing tooth incompletely splits into the formation of two teeth. Fusion is the union of two adjacent teeth during development. Concrescence is the fusion of two separate teeth only in their cementum. Accessory cusps are additional cusps on a tooth and may manifest as a Talon cusp, Cusp of Carabelli, or Dens evaginatus. Dens invaginatus, also called Dens in dente, is a deep invagination in a tooth causing the appearance of a tooth within a tooth. Ectopic enamel is enamel found in an unusual location, such as the root of a tooth. Taurodontism is a condition where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged, and is associated with Klinefelter syndrome, Tricho-dento-osseous syndrome, Triple X syndrome, and XYY syndrome.[71] Hypercementosis is excessive formation of cementum, which may result from trauma, inflammation, acromegaly, rheumatic fever, and Paget's disease of bone.[71] A dilaceration is a bend in the root which may have been caused by trauma to the tooth during formation. Supernumerary roots is the presence of a greater number of roots on a tooth than expected.
Abnormality in structure
Amelogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which enamel does not form properly or at all.[72] Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which dentin does not form properly and is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta.[73] Dentin dysplasia is a disorder in which the roots and pulp of teeth may be affected. Regional odontodysplasia is a disorder affecting enamel, dentin, and pulp and causes the teeth to appear "ghostly" on radiographs.[74]
Non-human animals
Section through the ivory tusk of a mammoth
Main article: Tooth (animal)
Teeth of Great White Shark
Teeth vary greatly among animals. Some animals, such as turtles and tortoises, are toothless. Others, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[75] Dog teeth are less likely than human teeth to form dental caries because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[76] Unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel and must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[77] Horse teeth include twelve premolars, twelve molars, and twelve incisors. Whale teeth have some similarities and differences from human teeth. Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human to protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. As mentioned, the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface. Whale teeth have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at its tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel.[78] The structure of horse teeth is different from human teeth as the enamel and dentin layers are intertwined.[79]
See also
Look up tooth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
teeth
* Barodontalgia
* Braces
* Dental auxiliary
o Dental assistant
o Dental hygienist
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* Dental notation
* Dental tourism
* Dentistry
* Dragon's teeth (mythology)
* Head and neck anatomy
* Language
* Tooth Fairy
* Tooth painting
* Vocal tract
Lists
* List of basic dentistry topics
* List of oral health and dental topics
References
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooth
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"Teeth" redirects here. For the film, see Teeth (film).
Teeth
An adult human's teeth.
CGI posterior view of teeth taken from inside mouth
Dorlands/Elsevier Tooth
Teeth (singular, Tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or defense. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness.
Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing. Carnivores, on the other hand, need canines to kill and tear meat.
Mammals are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby," "milk," "primary" or "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.
Some animals develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont) while others develop many sets (polyphyodont). Sharks, for example, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, maintaining relatively constant length. Many rodents, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig[verification needed], have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Anatomy
* 2 Parts
o 2.1 Enamel
o 2.2 Dentin
o 2.3 Cementum
o 2.4 Pulp
* 3 Development
* 4 Eruption
* 5 Supporting structures
o 5.1 Periodontal ligaments
o 5.2 Alveolar bone
o 5.3 Gingiva
* 6 Tooth decay
o 6.1 Plaque
o 6.2 Caries (Cavities)
* 7 Tooth care
* 8 Restorations
* 9 Abnormalities
o 9.1 Digestive
+ 9.1.1 Alteration during tooth development
+ 9.1.2 Destruction after development
+ 9.1.3 Discoloration
+ 9.1.4 Alteration of eruption
o 9.2 Developmental
+ 9.2.1 Abnormality in number
+ 9.2.2 Abnormality in size
+ 9.2.3 Abnormality in shape
+ 9.2.4 Abnormality in structure
* 10 Non-human animals
* 11 See also
o 11.1 Lists
* 12 References
* 13 External links
Anatomy
A third molar.
Main article: Dental anatomy
The bottom teeth are used more for the grinding of food and the top front teeth are mainly used for biting.
Dental anatomy is a field of anatomy dedicated to the study of tooth structures. The development, appearance, and classification of teeth fall within its field of study, though dental occlusion, or contact among teeth, does not. Dental anatomy is also a taxonomical science as it is concerned with the naming of teeth and their structures. This information serves a practical purpose for dentists, enabling them to easily identify teeth and structures during treatment.
The anatomic crown of a tooth is the area covered in enamel above the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[3] The majority of the crown is composed of dentin with the pulp chamber in the center.[4] The crown is within bone before eruption.[5] After eruption, it is almost always visible. The anatomic root is found below the cementoenamel junction and is covered with cementum. As with the crown, dentin composes most of the root, which normally have pulp canals. A tooth may have multiple roots or just one root. Canines and most premolars, except for maxillary (upper) first premolars, usually have one root. Maxillary first premolars and mandibular molars usually have two roots. Maxillary molars usually have three roots. Additional roots are referred to as supernumerary roots.
Models of human teeth as they exist within the alveolar bone.
Humans usually have 20 primary teeth (also called deciduous, baby, or milk teeth) and 32 permanent teeth. Among primary teeth, 10 are found in the (upper) maxilla and the other 10 in the (lower) mandible. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, and molars. In the primary set of teeth, there are two types of incisors, centrals and laterals, and two types of molars, first and second. All primary teeth are replaced with permanent counterparts except for molars, which are replaced by permanent premolars. Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla with the other 16 in the mandible. The maxillary teeth are the maxillary central incisor, maxillary lateral incisor, maxillary canine, maxillary first premolar, maxillary second premolar, maxillary first molar, maxillary second molar, and maxillary third molar. The mandibular teeth are the mandibular central incisor, mandibular lateral incisor, mandibular canine, mandibular first premolar, mandibular second premolar, mandibular first molar, mandibular second molar, and mandibular third molar. Third molars are commonly called "wisdom teeth" and may never erupt into the mouth or form at all. If any additional teeth form, for example, fourth and fifth molars, which are rare, they are referred to as supernumerary teeth.[6]
Most teeth have identifiable features that distinguish them from others. There are several different notation systems to refer to a specific tooth. The three most commons systems are the FDI World Dental Federation notation, the universal numbering system, and Palmer notation method. The FDI system is used worldwide, and the universal is used widely in the United States.
Parts
Section of a human molar
Enamel
Main article: Tooth enamel
Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body and is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.[7] It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material composing the rest.[8] The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[9]
Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate.[10] The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness.[11] Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support.[10] Unlike dentin and bone, enamel does not contain collagen. Instead, it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions.[12]
Dentin
Main article: Dentin
Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber. It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp.[13] The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis. The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70% inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10% water by weight.[14] Because it is softer than enamel, it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated, but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth.
Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. Dentin has microscopic channels, called dentinal tubules, which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border.[15] The diameter of these tubules range from 2.5 μm near the pulp, to 1.2 μm in the midportion, and 900 nm near the dentino-enamel junction.[16] Although they may have tiny side-branches, the tubules do not intersect with each other. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined.
Cementum
Main article: Cementum
Cementum is a specialized bony substance covering the root of a tooth.[13] It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root.[17] The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.[18]
Pulp
Main article: Pulp (tooth)
The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue.[14] This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root.[19] Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts, which initiate the formation of dentin.[14] Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts, preodontoblasts, macrophages and T lymphocytes.[20] The pulp is commonly called "the nerve" of the tooth.
Development
Main article: Tooth development
Radiograph of lower right third, second, and first molars in different stages of development.
Tooth development is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells, grow, and erupt into the mouth. Although many diverse species have teeth, non-human tooth development is largely the same as in humans. For human teeth to have a healthy oral environment, enamel, dentin, cementum, and the periodontium must all develop during appropriate stages of fetal development. Primary (baby) teeth start to form between the sixth and eighth weeks in utero, and permanent teeth begin to form in the twentieth week in utero.[21] If teeth do not start to develop at or near these times, they will not develop at all.
A significant amount of research has focused on determining the processes that initiate tooth development. It is widely accepted that there is a factor within the tissues of the first branchial arch that is necessary for the development of teeth.[22]
Tooth development is commonly divided into the following stages: the bud stage, the cap, the bell, and finally maturation. The staging of tooth development is an attempt to categorize changes that take place along a continuum; frequently it is difficult to decide what stage should be assigned to a particular developing tooth.[22] This determination is further complicated by the varying appearance of different histologic sections of the same developing tooth, which can appear to be different stages.
The tooth bud (sometimes called the tooth germ) is an aggregation of cells that eventually forms a tooth. It is organized into three parts: the enamel organ, the dental papilla and the dental follicle.[23] The enamel organ is composed of the outer enamel epithelium, inner enamel epithelium, stellate reticulum and stratum intermedium.[23] These cells give rise to ameloblasts, which produce enamel and the reduced enamel epithelium. The growth of cervical loop cells into the deeper tissues forms Hertwig's Epithelial Root Sheath, which determines a tooth's root shape. The dental papilla contains cells that develop into odontoblasts, which are dentin-forming cells.[23] Additionally, the junction between the dental papilla and inner enamel epithelium determines the crown shape of a tooth.[24] The dental follicle gives rise to three important entities: cementoblasts, osteoblasts, and fibroblasts. Cementoblasts form the cementum of a tooth. Osteoblasts give rise to the alveolar bone around the roots of teeth. Fibroblasts develop the periodontal ligaments which connect teeth to the alveolar bone through cementum.[25]
Eruption
Main article: Tooth eruption
Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age. These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts. This stage, during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth, is known as the mixed stage. The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth.
There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption. One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth.[26] Another, known as the cushioned hammock theory, resulted from microscopic study of teeth, which was thought to show a ligament around the root. It was later discovered that the "ligament" was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide.[27] Currently, the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process.[28]
The onset of primary tooth loss has been found to correlate strongly with somatic and psychological criteria of school readiness.[29][30]
Supporting structures
Histologic slide of tooth erupting into the mouth.
A: tooth
B: gingiva
C: bone
D: periodontal ligaments
The periodontium is the supporting structure of a tooth, helping to attach the tooth to surrounding tissues and to allow sensations of touch and pressure.[31] It consists of the cementum, periodontal ligaments, alveolar bone, and gingiva. Of these, cementum is the only one that is a part of a tooth. Periodontal ligaments connect the alveolar bone to the cementum. Alveolar bone surrounds the roots of teeth to provide support and creates what is commonly called an alveolus, or "socket". Lying over the bone is the gingiva or gum, which is readily visible in the mouth.
Periodontal ligaments
The periodontal ligament is a specialized connective tissue that attaches the cementum of a tooth to the alveolar bone. This tissue covers the root of the tooth within the bone. Each ligament has a width of 0.15 - 0.38 mm, but this size decreases over time.[32] The functions of the periodontal ligaments include attachment of the tooth to the bone, support for the tooth, formation and resorption of bone during tooth movement, sensation, and eruption.[33] The cells of the periodontal ligaments include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, fibroblasts, macrophages, cementoblasts, and epithelial cell rests of Malassez.[34] Consisting of mostly Type I and III collagen, the fibers are grouped in bundles and named according to their location. The groups of fibers are named alveolar crest, horizontal, oblique, periapical, and interradicular fibers.[35] The nerve supply generally enters from the bone apical to the tooth and forms a network around the tooth toward the crest of the gingiva.[36] When pressure is exerted on a tooth, such as during chewing or biting, the tooth moves slightly in its socket and puts tension on the periodontal ligaments. The nerve fibers can then send the information to the central nervous system for interpretation.
Alveolar bone
The alveolar bone is the bone of the jaw which forms the alveolus around teeth.[37] Like any other bone in the human body, alveolar bone is modified throughout life. Osteoblasts create bone and osteoclasts destroy it, especially if force is placed on a tooth.[31] As is the case when movement of teeth is attempted through orthodontics, an area of bone under compressive force from a tooth moving toward it has a high osteoclast level, resulting in bone resorption. An area of bone receiving tension from periodontal ligaments attached to a tooth moving away from it has a high number of osteoblasts, resulting in bone formation.
Gingiva
The gingiva ("gums") is the mucosal tissue that overlays the jaws. There are three different types of epithelium associated with the gingiva: gingival, junctional, and sulcular epithelium. These three types form from a mass of epithelial cells known as the epithelial cuff between the tooth and the mouth.[38] The gingival epithelium is not associated directly with tooth attachment and is visible in the mouth. The junctional epithelium, composed of the basal lamina and hemidesmosomes, forms an attachment to the tooth.[33] The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue on the gingiva which touches but is not attached to the tooth.[39] This leaves a small potential space between the gingiva and tooth which can collect bacteria, plaque, and calculus.
Tooth decay
Plaque
Main article: Dental plaque
Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of various bacteria that form on teeth.[40] If not removed regularly, plaque buildup can lead to dental cavities (caries) or periodontal problems such as gingivitis. Given time, plaque can mineralize along the gingiva, forming tartar. The microorganisms that form the biofilm are almost entirely bacteria (mainly streptococcus and anaerobes), with the composition varying by location in the mouth.[41] Streptococcus mutans is the most important bacteria associated with dental caries.
Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods, especially sugars and starches. In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid, which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel.[13][42] This process, known as "demineralisation", leads to tooth destruction. Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH. This causes 'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria.
Caries (Cavities)
Advanced tooth decay on a premolar.
Main article: Dental caries
Dental caries, also described as "tooth decay" or "dental cavities", is an infectious disease which damages the structures of teeth.[43] The disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Dental caries has a long history, with evidence showing the disease was present in the Bronze, Iron, and Middle ages but also prior to the neolithic period.[44] The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with diet changes.[44][45] Today, caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. In the United States, dental caries is the most common chronic childhood disease, being at least five times more common than asthma.[46] Countries that have experienced an overall decrease in cases of tooth decay continue to have a disparity in the distribution of the disease.[47] Among children in the United States and Europe, 60-80% of cases of dental caries occur in 20% of the population.[48]
Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.[49][50] The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.[51]
Tooth care
Toothbrushes are commonly used to clean teeth.
Main article: Oral hygiene
Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth clean and is a means of preventing dental caries, gingivitis, periodontal disease, bad breath, and other dental disorders. It consists of both professional and personal care. Regular cleanings, usually done by dentists and dental hygienists, remove tartar (mineralized plaque) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, using various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from teeth.
The purpose of cleaning teeth is to remove plaque, which consists mostly of bacteria.[52] Healthcare professionals recommend regular brushing twice a day (in the morning and in the evening, or after meals) in order to prevent formation of plaque and tartar.[51] A toothbrush is able to remove most plaque, excepting areas between teeth. As a result, flossing is also considered a necessity to maintain oral hygiene. When used correctly, dental floss removes plaque from between teeth and at the gum line, where periodontal disease often begins and could develop caries. Electric toothbrushes are not considered more effective than manual brushes for most people.[53] The most important advantage of electric toothbrushes is their ability to aid people with dexterity difficulties, such as those associated with rheumatoid arthritis.
In addition, fluoride therapy is often recommended to protect against dental caries, water fluoridation and fluoride supplements decrease the incidence of dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent dental decay by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel.[54] The incorporated fluoride makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and thus more resistant to decay.[55] Topical fluoride, such as a fluoride toothpaste or mouthwash, is also recommended to protect teeth surfaces. Many dentists include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine cleanings.
Restorations
After a tooth has been damaged or destroyed, restoration of the missing structure can be achieved with a variety of treatments. Restorations may be created from a variety of materials, including glass ionomer, amalgam, gold, porcelain, and composite.[56] Small restorations placed inside a tooth are referred to as "intracoronal restorations". These restorations may be formed directly in the mouth or may be cast using the lost-wax technique, such as for some inlays and onlays. When larger portions of a tooth are lost, an "extracoronal restoration" may be fabricated, such as a crown or a veneer, to restore the involved tooth.
Picture of a restored premolar.
When a tooth is lost, dentures, bridges, or implants may be used as replacements.[57] Dentures are usually the least costly whereas implants are usually the most expensive. Dentures may replace complete arches of the mouth or only a partial number of teeth. Bridges replace smaller spaces of missing teeth and use adjacent teeth to support the restoration. Dental implants may be used to replace a single tooth or a series of teeth. Though implants are the most expensive treatment option, they are often the most desirable restoration because of their aesthetics and function. To improve the function of dentures, implants may be used as support.[58]
Abnormalities
Tooth abnormalities may be categorized according to whether they have environmental or developmental causes.[59] While environmental abnormalities may appear to have an obvious cause, there may not appear to be any known cause for some developmental abnormalities. Environmental forces may affect teeth during development, destroy tooth structure after development, discolor teeth at any stage of development, or alter the course of tooth eruption. Developmental abnormalities most commonly affect the number, size, shape, and structure of teeth.
Digestive
Alteration during tooth development
Tooth abnormalities caused by environmental factors during tooth development have long-lasting effects. Enamel and dentin do not regenerate after they mineralize initially. Enamel hypoplasia is a condition in which the amount of enamel formed is inadequate.[60] This results either in pits and grooves in areas of the tooth or in widespread absence of enamel. Diffuse opacities of enamel does not affect the amount of enamel but changes its appearance. Affected enamel has a different translucency than the rest of the tooth. Demarcated opacities of enamel have sharp boundaries where the translucency decreases and manifest a white, cream, yellow, or brown color. All these may be caused by a systemic event, such as an exanthematous fever.[61] Turner's hypoplasia is a portion of missing or diminished enamel on a permanent tooth usually from a prior infection of a nearby primary tooth. Hypoplasia may also result from antineoplastic therapy. Dental fluorosis is condition which results from ingesting excessive amounts of fluoride and leads to teeth which are spotted, yellow, brown, black or sometimes pitted. Enamel hypoplasia resulting from syphilis is frequently referred to as Hutchinson's teeth, which is considered one part of Hutchinson's triad.[62]
Destruction after development
Tooth destruction from processes other than dental caries is considered a normal physiologic process but may become severe enough to become a pathologic condition. Attrition is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from opposing teeth.[63] Attrition initially affects the enamel and, if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying dentin. Abrasion is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element.[64] If this force begins at the cementoenamel junction, then progression of tooth loss can be rapid since enamel is very thin in this region of the tooth. A common source of this type of tooth wear is excessive force when using a toothbrush. Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin.[65][66] Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the teeth to gastric acids. Another important source of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice. Abfraction is the loss of tooth structure from flexural forces. As teeth flex under pressure, the arrangement of teeth touching each other, known as occlusion, causes tension on one side of the tooth and compression on the other side of the tooth. This is believed to cause V-shaped depressions on the side under tension and C-shaped depressions on the side under compression. When tooth destruction occurs at the roots of teeth, the process is referred to as internal resorption, when caused by cells within the pulp, or external resorption, when caused by cells in the periodontal ligament.
Discoloration
Discoloration of teeth may result from bacteria stains, tobacco, tea, coffee, foods with an abundance of chlorophyll, restorative materials, and medications.[67] Stains from bacteria may cause colors varying from green to black to orange. Green stains also result from foods with chlorophyll or excessive exposure to copper or nickel. Amalgam, a common dental restorative material, may turn adjacent areas of teeth black or gray. Chlorhexidine, a mouthwash, is associated with causing yellow-brown stains near the gingiva on teeth. Systemic disorders also can cause tooth discoloration. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes porphyrins to be deposited in teeth, causing a red-brown coloration. Blue discoloration may occur with alkaptonuria and rarely with Parkinson's disease. Erythroblastosis fetalis and biliary atresia are diseases which may cause teeth to appear green from the deposition of biliverdin. Also, trauma may change a tooth to a pink, yellow, or dark gray color. Pink and red discolorations are also associated in patients with lepromatous leprosy. Some medications, such as tetracycline antibiotics, may become incorporated into the structure of a tooth, causing intrinsic staining of the teeth.
Alteration of eruption
Tooth eruption may be altered by some environmental factors. When eruption is prematurely stopped, the tooth is said to be impacted. The most common cause of tooth impaction is lack of space in the mouth for the tooth.[68] Other causes may be tumors, cysts, trauma, and thickened bone or soft tissue. Ankylosis of a tooth occurs when the tooth has already erupted into the mouth but the cementum or dentin has fused with the alveolar bone. This may cause a person to retain their primary tooth instead of having it replaced by a permanent one.
A technique for altering the natural progression of eruption is employed by orthodontists who wish to delay or speed up the eruption of certain teeth for reasons of space maintenance or otherwise preventing crowding and/or spacing. If a primary tooth is extracted prior to the root of its succeeding permanent tooth reaching ⅓ of its total growth, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be delayed. Conversely, if the roots of the permanent tooth are more than ⅔ complete, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be accelerated. Between ⅓ and ⅔, it is unknown exactly what will occur to the speed of eruption.
Developmental
Abnormality in number
Anodontia is the total lack of tooth development. Hyperdontia is the presence of a higher-than-normal number of teeth, where as Hypodontia is the lack of some teeth. Usually, hypodontia refers to the lack of development of one or more teeth, and oligodontia may be used to describe the absence of 6 or more teeth. Some systemic disorders which may result in hyperdontia include Apert syndrome, Cleidocranial dysostosis, Crouzon syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Gardner syndrome, and Sturge-Weber syndrome.[69] Some systemic disorders which may result in hypodontia include Crouzon syndrome, Ectodermal dysplasia, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and Gorlin syndrome.[70]
Abnormality in size
Microdontia is a condition where teeth are smaller than the usual size, and macrodontia is where teeth are larger than the usual size. Microdontia of a single tooth is more likely to occur in a maxillary lateral incisor. The second most likely tooth to have microdontia are third molars. Macrodontia of all the teeth is known to occur in pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia. It may also occur on one side of the face in cases of hemifacial hyperplasia.
Abnormality in shape
The fusion of two deciduous teeth.
Gemination occurs when a developing tooth incompletely splits into the formation of two teeth. Fusion is the union of two adjacent teeth during development. Concrescence is the fusion of two separate teeth only in their cementum. Accessory cusps are additional cusps on a tooth and may manifest as a Talon cusp, Cusp of Carabelli, or Dens evaginatus. Dens invaginatus, also called Dens in dente, is a deep invagination in a tooth causing the appearance of a tooth within a tooth. Ectopic enamel is enamel found in an unusual location, such as the root of a tooth. Taurodontism is a condition where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged, and is associated with Klinefelter syndrome, Tricho-dento-osseous syndrome, Triple X syndrome, and XYY syndrome.[71] Hypercementosis is excessive formation of cementum, which may result from trauma, inflammation, acromegaly, rheumatic fever, and Paget's disease of bone.[71] A dilaceration is a bend in the root which may have been caused by trauma to the tooth during formation. Supernumerary roots is the presence of a greater number of roots on a tooth than expected.
Abnormality in structure
Amelogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which enamel does not form properly or at all.[72] Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which dentin does not form properly and is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta.[73] Dentin dysplasia is a disorder in which the roots and pulp of teeth may be affected. Regional odontodysplasia is a disorder affecting enamel, dentin, and pulp and causes the teeth to appear "ghostly" on radiographs.[74]
Non-human animals
Section through the ivory tusk of a mammoth
Main article: Tooth (animal)
Teeth of Great White Shark
Teeth vary greatly among animals. Some animals, such as turtles and tortoises, are toothless. Others, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[75] Dog teeth are less likely than human teeth to form dental caries because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[76] Unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel and must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[77] Horse teeth include twelve premolars, twelve molars, and twelve incisors. Whale teeth have some similarities and differences from human teeth. Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human to protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. As mentioned, the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface. Whale teeth have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at its tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel.[78] The structure of horse teeth is different from human teeth as the enamel and dentin layers are intertwined.[79]
See also
Look up tooth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
teeth
* Barodontalgia
* Braces
* Dental auxiliary
o Dental assistant
o Dental hygienist
o Dental technician
* Dental notation
* Dental tourism
* Dentistry
* Dragon's teeth (mythology)
* Head and neck anatomy
* Language
* Tooth Fairy
* Tooth painting
* Vocal tract
Lists
* List of basic dentistry topics
* List of oral health and dental topics
References
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooth
Why I as a Pakistani, choose to support Obama, instead of McCain
Why I as a Pakistani, choose to support Obama, instead of McCain
Posted by Teeth Maestro
October 9, 2008 | 552 views
Obama for Change
For a few days people must have noticed that I have starting sporting a button on my blog which loudly proclaims ‘I Support Obama‘, and consequentially many friends have questioned my reasoning to opt for the Democratic candidate instead of the sweet talking McCain. Firstly I accept the fact that as a non-American whatever I say or do will not matter on the outcome, but if there are still any undecided voters and are willing to be swayed by my position then so be it, but I feel its important to support the candidate which I feel could be best for Pakistan
The conclusion I have achieved is most definitely debatable, I choose to look beyond mere words and see a possible solution for the mess in Pakistan. For me Obama represents a fresh change in the White House, it is my understanding that they both propose ‘approximately’ the same line of action for Pakistan. Obama wishes to quickly clean up the terrorism threat in Pakistan, while McCain proposes a slow but extensively drawn out plan of action, which I feel actually means a long term American presence in Pakistan. If they are both generally coming with the same mindset then I feel I would carefully put my eggs into Obama’s basket.
My reasoning is based on a couple of articles that I contributed to Al-Jazeera Election coverage. The first was written immediately after the First Presidential debate while the next one just recently after the Vice Presidential face-off. I must admit that I was unable to physically watch the second presidential debate, but the transcripts I have read on Pakistan show the general position is fairly the same
Al-Jazeera English: Global voices: US foreign policy: In recent terms Pakistan has come under an extensive scrutiny and was important enough to come into discussion during the first presidential debate. McCain kicked off by offering a more soft and understandable approach. He suggested taking the people of Pakistan into confidence on the “war on terror” and moving forward hand-in-hand to eradicate the menace of terrorism.
“We’ve got to get the support of the people of Pakistan … he [Obama] said that he would launch military strikes into Pakistan,” he said. Obama quickly reacted: “Nobody talked about attacking Pakistan. If the United States has al-Qaeda, bin Laden [and] top-level lieutenants in our sights - and Pakistan is unable or unwilling to act - then we should take them out.”
McCain is definitely on the right track to talk about confidence building measures with the people of Pakistan, which at the moment is at its lowest in ages, but contrary to what he suggests, Bush administration has repeatedly failed to do exactly that in eight years, for which he must also accept responsibility. Might we suspect these to be glamourous words just to win an election? I hope not, but eight years of uselessness will not salvage a sinking boat.
Committed to change?
Senator Obama on the other hand seems more committed to change, he suggests a strong hand to remove the terrormongers once in for all. It took the Americans a few months to hunt down Saddam Hussein, but it’s been seven years and the mountains in Afghanistan have yet to cough up Osama Bin Ladin and his deputies only to now have them hiding in Pakistan.
If this was not gross mismanagement then I wonder what is. It was good to see Obama lash out at McCain for supporting a dictator in Pakistan, saying “We had a 20th century mindset that said ‘well, you know, he may be a dictator, but he’s our dictator’ and as a consequence, we lost legitimacy in Pakistan.”
McCain responded “I don’t think that Senator Obama understands that there was a failed state in Pakistan when [former president Pervez] Musharraf came to power. Everybody who was around then, and had been there, and knew about it knew that it was a failed state.” This was a very lame response by McCain, as it definitely displayed the failures in the Bush administrations, failure to gauge the problem and the wrong decision to support the wrong individuals.
They continued to fork over billions of dollars without proper accountability and supported ‘their friend’ till he coughed up his last breath and succumbed to democracy.
No clear ‘victor’
I must admit that apart from picking apart a few statements from within the debate, I do not come forth with a clear victor in regards to the issues of Pakistan. Only in an attempt to bring this presidential debate into a wider perspective for the people in Pakistan, one just feels there is a desperate need for change.
Pakistan stands at a fork in the road. If the same old policies are followed, with the same blind-sighted relationship maintained with crooks and dictators running our country, the menacing war on terror will only get worse. Obama represents a fresh change, as per my neutral review of the debate, it is my understanding that if they both support approximately the same line of action for Pakistan, I would carefully put my eggs into Obama’s basket.
He talks with more commitment to the challenges ahead while simultaneously suggesting a “tough guy” approach on Pakistan.
http://www.teeth.com.pk/blog/2008/10/09/why-i-support-obama
Posted by Teeth Maestro
October 9, 2008 | 552 views
Obama for Change
For a few days people must have noticed that I have starting sporting a button on my blog which loudly proclaims ‘I Support Obama‘, and consequentially many friends have questioned my reasoning to opt for the Democratic candidate instead of the sweet talking McCain. Firstly I accept the fact that as a non-American whatever I say or do will not matter on the outcome, but if there are still any undecided voters and are willing to be swayed by my position then so be it, but I feel its important to support the candidate which I feel could be best for Pakistan
The conclusion I have achieved is most definitely debatable, I choose to look beyond mere words and see a possible solution for the mess in Pakistan. For me Obama represents a fresh change in the White House, it is my understanding that they both propose ‘approximately’ the same line of action for Pakistan. Obama wishes to quickly clean up the terrorism threat in Pakistan, while McCain proposes a slow but extensively drawn out plan of action, which I feel actually means a long term American presence in Pakistan. If they are both generally coming with the same mindset then I feel I would carefully put my eggs into Obama’s basket.
My reasoning is based on a couple of articles that I contributed to Al-Jazeera Election coverage. The first was written immediately after the First Presidential debate while the next one just recently after the Vice Presidential face-off. I must admit that I was unable to physically watch the second presidential debate, but the transcripts I have read on Pakistan show the general position is fairly the same
Al-Jazeera English: Global voices: US foreign policy: In recent terms Pakistan has come under an extensive scrutiny and was important enough to come into discussion during the first presidential debate. McCain kicked off by offering a more soft and understandable approach. He suggested taking the people of Pakistan into confidence on the “war on terror” and moving forward hand-in-hand to eradicate the menace of terrorism.
“We’ve got to get the support of the people of Pakistan … he [Obama] said that he would launch military strikes into Pakistan,” he said. Obama quickly reacted: “Nobody talked about attacking Pakistan. If the United States has al-Qaeda, bin Laden [and] top-level lieutenants in our sights - and Pakistan is unable or unwilling to act - then we should take them out.”
McCain is definitely on the right track to talk about confidence building measures with the people of Pakistan, which at the moment is at its lowest in ages, but contrary to what he suggests, Bush administration has repeatedly failed to do exactly that in eight years, for which he must also accept responsibility. Might we suspect these to be glamourous words just to win an election? I hope not, but eight years of uselessness will not salvage a sinking boat.
Committed to change?
Senator Obama on the other hand seems more committed to change, he suggests a strong hand to remove the terrormongers once in for all. It took the Americans a few months to hunt down Saddam Hussein, but it’s been seven years and the mountains in Afghanistan have yet to cough up Osama Bin Ladin and his deputies only to now have them hiding in Pakistan.
If this was not gross mismanagement then I wonder what is. It was good to see Obama lash out at McCain for supporting a dictator in Pakistan, saying “We had a 20th century mindset that said ‘well, you know, he may be a dictator, but he’s our dictator’ and as a consequence, we lost legitimacy in Pakistan.”
McCain responded “I don’t think that Senator Obama understands that there was a failed state in Pakistan when [former president Pervez] Musharraf came to power. Everybody who was around then, and had been there, and knew about it knew that it was a failed state.” This was a very lame response by McCain, as it definitely displayed the failures in the Bush administrations, failure to gauge the problem and the wrong decision to support the wrong individuals.
They continued to fork over billions of dollars without proper accountability and supported ‘their friend’ till he coughed up his last breath and succumbed to democracy.
No clear ‘victor’
I must admit that apart from picking apart a few statements from within the debate, I do not come forth with a clear victor in regards to the issues of Pakistan. Only in an attempt to bring this presidential debate into a wider perspective for the people in Pakistan, one just feels there is a desperate need for change.
Pakistan stands at a fork in the road. If the same old policies are followed, with the same blind-sighted relationship maintained with crooks and dictators running our country, the menacing war on terror will only get worse. Obama represents a fresh change, as per my neutral review of the debate, it is my understanding that if they both support approximately the same line of action for Pakistan, I would carefully put my eggs into Obama’s basket.
He talks with more commitment to the challenges ahead while simultaneously suggesting a “tough guy” approach on Pakistan.
http://www.teeth.com.pk/blog/2008/10/09/why-i-support-obama
British Teeth
night note
British Teeth
By Luke Plunkett, 7:40 AM on Mon Nov 3 2008, 1,521 views
To: Crecente
From: Luke
Today, Ash had the day off. Some Japanese public holiday, no doubt related to something noble, ancient and revered. Tomorrow, I have the day off. For a very Australian public holiday. Related to a horse race. The Melbourne Cup. We all ("we" being the people of Melbourne and the Australian Capital Territory) get the day off so we can take part in our own noble and revered traditions. Namely, gambling and getting drunk during the day.
Oh, and the headline? Has nothing to do with the dental standards of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. I just always thought it'd be a great name for a racehorse. British Teeth.
Here's what you missed while counting sheep:
Universal Buys Rights To EA's Dante's Inferno
The PlayStation 3 Vending Machine
Game Boy Lives On As Home For Amazing Boxing Cartoon
Microsoft Top Brass Not Exactly Happy With XBL Downtime
Read More: night note, note
http://kotaku.com/5074785/british-teeth
British Teeth
By Luke Plunkett, 7:40 AM on Mon Nov 3 2008, 1,521 views
To: Crecente
From: Luke
Today, Ash had the day off. Some Japanese public holiday, no doubt related to something noble, ancient and revered. Tomorrow, I have the day off. For a very Australian public holiday. Related to a horse race. The Melbourne Cup. We all ("we" being the people of Melbourne and the Australian Capital Territory) get the day off so we can take part in our own noble and revered traditions. Namely, gambling and getting drunk during the day.
Oh, and the headline? Has nothing to do with the dental standards of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. I just always thought it'd be a great name for a racehorse. British Teeth.
Here's what you missed while counting sheep:
Universal Buys Rights To EA's Dante's Inferno
The PlayStation 3 Vending Machine
Game Boy Lives On As Home For Amazing Boxing Cartoon
Microsoft Top Brass Not Exactly Happy With XBL Downtime
Read More: night note, note
http://kotaku.com/5074785/british-teeth
Duncan Hunter on Obama: 'I think he has great teeth'
Duncan Hunter on Obama: 'I think he has great teeth'
By John Amato Friday Oct 24, 2008 6:15pm
HB-Hunter-Good-Teeth-102408
icon Download | Play icon Download | Play (h/t Heather)
Oh boy, where to begin? Tweety asks Duncan Hunter about John McCain's chances in the general election after a new NY Times poll came out saying that Obama has a 13 pt lead: 52-39. Hunter says McCain was way down before and while not eloquent, he knows how to spell the word "win" and his foreign policy background is a winning issue. Typical surrogate talk and then Matthews brought up the fact that the Rick Davis-led campaign never focused on Iraq, but instead hit the very petty, low brow personal attack points that we've seen many times before.
Matthews: ....all these diversions they've used. The fact that he might be anti-American...this whole thing about socialist. Joe the plumber. What's that got to do with the security issue you say?
Hunter: I think John is wrong in that case. I think he has been tested. He was tested on Iraq. And here was a guy with great teeth, great speaking style, excellent politician and a superb debater, but when it came to the major issues...
Matthews:...we just heard from Congressman Hunter that the winning piece of this man's vocabulary, the winning piece of his resume is that he has a nice smile, he has good teeth. Is that your assessment of Barack Obama, he's the first African American with a real shot to be President of the United States and is 13 points ahead of his Republican rival, that he has good teeth?
Hunter: Also a good debater and very eloquent.
Sounds like Duncan Hunter is describing an award winning horse. Even Matthews caught on and when he called Hunter on the "teeth" remark, Hunter didn't try to say he misspoke, only that Obama is a good debater and very eloquent.
http://crooksandliars.com/john-amato/duncan-hunter-obama-i-think-he-has-grea
By John Amato Friday Oct 24, 2008 6:15pm
HB-Hunter-Good-Teeth-102408
icon Download | Play icon Download | Play (h/t Heather)
Oh boy, where to begin? Tweety asks Duncan Hunter about John McCain's chances in the general election after a new NY Times poll came out saying that Obama has a 13 pt lead: 52-39. Hunter says McCain was way down before and while not eloquent, he knows how to spell the word "win" and his foreign policy background is a winning issue. Typical surrogate talk and then Matthews brought up the fact that the Rick Davis-led campaign never focused on Iraq, but instead hit the very petty, low brow personal attack points that we've seen many times before.
Matthews: ....all these diversions they've used. The fact that he might be anti-American...this whole thing about socialist. Joe the plumber. What's that got to do with the security issue you say?
Hunter: I think John is wrong in that case. I think he has been tested. He was tested on Iraq. And here was a guy with great teeth, great speaking style, excellent politician and a superb debater, but when it came to the major issues...
Matthews:...we just heard from Congressman Hunter that the winning piece of this man's vocabulary, the winning piece of his resume is that he has a nice smile, he has good teeth. Is that your assessment of Barack Obama, he's the first African American with a real shot to be President of the United States and is 13 points ahead of his Republican rival, that he has good teeth?
Hunter: Also a good debater and very eloquent.
Sounds like Duncan Hunter is describing an award winning horse. Even Matthews caught on and when he called Hunter on the "teeth" remark, Hunter didn't try to say he misspoke, only that Obama is a good debater and very eloquent.
http://crooksandliars.com/john-amato/duncan-hunter-obama-i-think-he-has-grea
Merawat Gigi dan Mulut Balita
Sunday, November 30, 2008
Merawat Gigi dan Mulut Balita
Perawatan gigi dan mulut pada masa balita dan anak ternyata cukup menentukan kesehatan gigi dan mulut mereka pada tingkatan usia selanjutnya. Beberapa penyakit gigi dan mulut bisa mereka alami bila perawatan tidak dilakukan dengan baik. Di antaranya caries (lubang pada permukaan gigi), ginggivitis (radang gusi), dan sariawan.
Untuk mencegahnya, beberapa hal berikut perlu mendapatkan perhatian orang tua:
1. Kurangi konsumsi makanan manis dan mudah melekat pada gigi seperti permen atau coklat. Namun melarang sama sekali dapat menimbulkan dampak psikis.
2. Ajak mereka menggosok gigi secara teratur dan benar pada pagi, sore, dan menjelang tidur. Lebih baik lagi bila dilakukan setiap usai makan. Biasakan mereka berkumur-kumur setelah makan makanan manis.
3. Siapkan makanan kaya kalsium (ikan & susu), fluor (teh, daging sapi & sayuran hijau), fosfor, serta vitamin A (wortel), C (bebuahan), D (susu), dan E (kecambah). Mineral dan vitamin tersebut diperlukan untuk pertumbuhan gigi mereka.
4. Jaga higiene oral mereka dengan baik. Bila ada karang gigi segera bawa ke dokter gigi untuk dibersihkan.
5. Ajak mereka memeriksakan gigi enam bulan sekali.
6. Bila tiba-tiba mengeluh sakit gigi, suruh mereka berkumur dengan air garam hangat dan lubang ditutup kapas berminyak cengkeh. Bila sariawan, suruh mereka berkumur dengan air rebusan sirih dan garam yang hangat. Lalu, bawa ke dokter/klinik gigi.
http://duniaanak.rawins.com/2008/11/merawat-gigi-dan-mulut-balita.html
Merawat Gigi dan Mulut Balita
Perawatan gigi dan mulut pada masa balita dan anak ternyata cukup menentukan kesehatan gigi dan mulut mereka pada tingkatan usia selanjutnya. Beberapa penyakit gigi dan mulut bisa mereka alami bila perawatan tidak dilakukan dengan baik. Di antaranya caries (lubang pada permukaan gigi), ginggivitis (radang gusi), dan sariawan.
Untuk mencegahnya, beberapa hal berikut perlu mendapatkan perhatian orang tua:
1. Kurangi konsumsi makanan manis dan mudah melekat pada gigi seperti permen atau coklat. Namun melarang sama sekali dapat menimbulkan dampak psikis.
2. Ajak mereka menggosok gigi secara teratur dan benar pada pagi, sore, dan menjelang tidur. Lebih baik lagi bila dilakukan setiap usai makan. Biasakan mereka berkumur-kumur setelah makan makanan manis.
3. Siapkan makanan kaya kalsium (ikan & susu), fluor (teh, daging sapi & sayuran hijau), fosfor, serta vitamin A (wortel), C (bebuahan), D (susu), dan E (kecambah). Mineral dan vitamin tersebut diperlukan untuk pertumbuhan gigi mereka.
4. Jaga higiene oral mereka dengan baik. Bila ada karang gigi segera bawa ke dokter gigi untuk dibersihkan.
5. Ajak mereka memeriksakan gigi enam bulan sekali.
6. Bila tiba-tiba mengeluh sakit gigi, suruh mereka berkumur dengan air garam hangat dan lubang ditutup kapas berminyak cengkeh. Bila sariawan, suruh mereka berkumur dengan air rebusan sirih dan garam yang hangat. Lalu, bawa ke dokter/klinik gigi.
http://duniaanak.rawins.com/2008/11/merawat-gigi-dan-mulut-balita.html
गीगी wikipwdia
Gigi
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
Langsung ke: navigasi, cari
Untuk kegunaan lainnya, lihat Gigi (disambiguasi)
Bagian dari gigi molar manusiaGigi adalah bagian keras yang terdapat di dalam mulut dari banyak vertebrata. Mereka memiliki struktur yang bervariasi yang memungkinkan mereka untuk melakukan banyak tugas. Fungsi utama dari gigi adalah untuk merobek dan mengunyah makanan dan pada beberapa hewan, terutama karnivora, sebagai senjata. Akar dari gigi tertutup oleh gusi. Gigi memiliki struktur pelindung yang disebut email gigi, yang membantu mencegah lubang di gigi. Pulp dalam gigi menciut dan dentin terdeposit di tempatnya.
Gigi merupakan bagian paling membedakan di jenis mamalia yang berbeda, dan salah satu yang bisa menjadi fosil dengan baik. Paleontologis menggunakannya untuk mengidentifikasi jenis fosil dan seringkali hubungan di antaranya. Bentuk gigi berhubungan dengan jenis makanan hewan tersebut. Misalnya herbivora memiliki banyak gigi geraham untuk mengunyah karena rumput sulit untuk dicerna. Karnivora membutuhkan taring untuk membunuh dan merobek, dan karena daging mudah untuk dicerna, maka mereka dapat menelan makanan tersebut tanpa membutuhkan geraham untuk mengunyah makanan tersebut terlebih dahulu.
Daftar isi [sembunyikan]
1 Bagian-bagian gigi
2 Jenis gigi
3 Lihat pula
4 Pranala luar
[sunting] Bagian-bagian gigi
Mahkota gigi atau corona, merupakan bagian yang tampak di atas gusi. Terdiri atas:
Lapisan email, merupakan lapisan yang paling keras.
Tualng gigi (dentin), di dalamnya terdapat saraf dan pembuluh darah.
Rongga gigi (pulpa), merupakan bagian antara corona dan radiks.
Leher gigi atau kolum, merupakan bagian yang berada di dalam gusi.
Akar gigi atau radiks, merupakan bagian yang tertanam pada tulang rahang. Akar gigi melekat pada tulang rahang dengan perantaraan semen gigi. Semen gigi melapisi akar gigi dan membantu menahan gigi agar tetap melekat pada gusi. Terdiri atas:
Lapisan semen, merupakan pelindung akar gigi dalam gusi.
Gusi, merupakan tempat tumbuh gigi.
[sunting] Jenis gigi
Berdasarkan masa pertumbuhan:
Gigi susu yaitu gigi yang tumbuh mulai usia 6 bulan. Jumlah terbanyak 20 buah.
Gigi tetap/permanen yaitu pengganti gigi susu yang berangsur-angsur tanggal. Paling banyak berjumlah 32 buah.
Berdasarkan bentuk:
Gigi seri berfungsi menggigit atau memotong makanan.
Gigi taring berfungsi merobek atau mencabik makanan.
Geraham depan dan geraham belakang berfungsi mengunyah atau melumatkan makanan.
[sunting] Lihat pula
Gigi bungsu
Gigi kuda
Terapi fluorida membantu gigi tetap kuat
Peri gigi
Gigi anak
Gigi tikus
Gigi palsu
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
Langsung ke: navigasi, cari
Untuk kegunaan lainnya, lihat Gigi (disambiguasi)
Bagian dari gigi molar manusiaGigi adalah bagian keras yang terdapat di dalam mulut dari banyak vertebrata. Mereka memiliki struktur yang bervariasi yang memungkinkan mereka untuk melakukan banyak tugas. Fungsi utama dari gigi adalah untuk merobek dan mengunyah makanan dan pada beberapa hewan, terutama karnivora, sebagai senjata. Akar dari gigi tertutup oleh gusi. Gigi memiliki struktur pelindung yang disebut email gigi, yang membantu mencegah lubang di gigi. Pulp dalam gigi menciut dan dentin terdeposit di tempatnya.
Gigi merupakan bagian paling membedakan di jenis mamalia yang berbeda, dan salah satu yang bisa menjadi fosil dengan baik. Paleontologis menggunakannya untuk mengidentifikasi jenis fosil dan seringkali hubungan di antaranya. Bentuk gigi berhubungan dengan jenis makanan hewan tersebut. Misalnya herbivora memiliki banyak gigi geraham untuk mengunyah karena rumput sulit untuk dicerna. Karnivora membutuhkan taring untuk membunuh dan merobek, dan karena daging mudah untuk dicerna, maka mereka dapat menelan makanan tersebut tanpa membutuhkan geraham untuk mengunyah makanan tersebut terlebih dahulu.
Daftar isi [sembunyikan]
1 Bagian-bagian gigi
2 Jenis gigi
3 Lihat pula
4 Pranala luar
[sunting] Bagian-bagian gigi
Mahkota gigi atau corona, merupakan bagian yang tampak di atas gusi. Terdiri atas:
Lapisan email, merupakan lapisan yang paling keras.
Tualng gigi (dentin), di dalamnya terdapat saraf dan pembuluh darah.
Rongga gigi (pulpa), merupakan bagian antara corona dan radiks.
Leher gigi atau kolum, merupakan bagian yang berada di dalam gusi.
Akar gigi atau radiks, merupakan bagian yang tertanam pada tulang rahang. Akar gigi melekat pada tulang rahang dengan perantaraan semen gigi. Semen gigi melapisi akar gigi dan membantu menahan gigi agar tetap melekat pada gusi. Terdiri atas:
Lapisan semen, merupakan pelindung akar gigi dalam gusi.
Gusi, merupakan tempat tumbuh gigi.
[sunting] Jenis gigi
Berdasarkan masa pertumbuhan:
Gigi susu yaitu gigi yang tumbuh mulai usia 6 bulan. Jumlah terbanyak 20 buah.
Gigi tetap/permanen yaitu pengganti gigi susu yang berangsur-angsur tanggal. Paling banyak berjumlah 32 buah.
Berdasarkan bentuk:
Gigi seri berfungsi menggigit atau memotong makanan.
Gigi taring berfungsi merobek atau mencabik makanan.
Geraham depan dan geraham belakang berfungsi mengunyah atau melumatkan makanan.
[sunting] Lihat pula
Gigi bungsu
Gigi kuda
Terapi fluorida membantu gigi tetap kuat
Peri gigi
Gigi anak
Gigi tikus
Gigi palsu
gigi
Newsgigi ajak kita meniti “jalan kebenaran”
21 Aug 2008 8:35am
Ramadhan tahun 2008 ini GIGI meluncurkan “Jalan Kebenaran”, album religinya yang ke 4. Berbeda dengan 3 album sebelumnya di mana GIGI banyak membawakan lagu orang dengan aransemen ala GIGI, di album baru ini semua lagunya ciptaan GIGI. Dengan kata lain jika dahulu GIGI “jualan” aransemen, sekarang “jualan” lagu utuh dengan aransemen dan lirik yang ditulis sendiri.
“Ini yang membuat album kali ini istimewa,” kata Dhani Pette, komandan POS Entertainment, manajemen GIGI.
Album Jalan Kebenaran ini juga menandai lepasnya GIGI dari Sony-BMG. “Ya, mulai tahun ini album GIGI diproduksi oleh POS Record. Tetapi distribusinya tetap lewat Sony-BMG, sebab merekalah yang mempunyai infrastrukturnya,” kata Dhani.
Dengan lepasnya GIGI dari Sony-BMG Dhani lebih leluasa “menjual” GIGI. Maksudnya soal hak cipta dan hak-hak lain sudah tidak ada masalah lagi. Tidak ada pihak ketiga yang mesti dilibatkan dalam setiap kontrak GIGI dengan produk.
Karena alasan ini pula banyak lagu Ramadhan GIGI yang dipakai dalam sinetron dan film layar lebar, bahkan sebelum album itu diluncurkan.
Deddy Mizwar, misalnya memakai lagu “Rinduku Cintamu” untuk sinetronnya dengan judul yang sama. Selama Ramadhan, sinetron ini diputar di SCTV pukul 21.00.
Sutradara Ayat-ayat Cinta, Hanung Bramantyo juga meminta lagu GIGI untuk film layar lebarnya yang berjudul “Doa yang Mengancam.” Kedua lagu itu adalah “Gerbang Cintamu, dan “Dosa Ini.” (baca track list album Jalan Kebenaran di bawah)
Sinemart memilih lagu “Jalan Kebenaran” untuk sinetron Ramadhan mereka. Sedangkan Astro senang dengan
http://www.gigionline.com/v2/detail.php?idnews=101
21 Aug 2008 8:35am
Ramadhan tahun 2008 ini GIGI meluncurkan “Jalan Kebenaran”, album religinya yang ke 4. Berbeda dengan 3 album sebelumnya di mana GIGI banyak membawakan lagu orang dengan aransemen ala GIGI, di album baru ini semua lagunya ciptaan GIGI. Dengan kata lain jika dahulu GIGI “jualan” aransemen, sekarang “jualan” lagu utuh dengan aransemen dan lirik yang ditulis sendiri.
“Ini yang membuat album kali ini istimewa,” kata Dhani Pette, komandan POS Entertainment, manajemen GIGI.
Album Jalan Kebenaran ini juga menandai lepasnya GIGI dari Sony-BMG. “Ya, mulai tahun ini album GIGI diproduksi oleh POS Record. Tetapi distribusinya tetap lewat Sony-BMG, sebab merekalah yang mempunyai infrastrukturnya,” kata Dhani.
Dengan lepasnya GIGI dari Sony-BMG Dhani lebih leluasa “menjual” GIGI. Maksudnya soal hak cipta dan hak-hak lain sudah tidak ada masalah lagi. Tidak ada pihak ketiga yang mesti dilibatkan dalam setiap kontrak GIGI dengan produk.
Karena alasan ini pula banyak lagu Ramadhan GIGI yang dipakai dalam sinetron dan film layar lebar, bahkan sebelum album itu diluncurkan.
Deddy Mizwar, misalnya memakai lagu “Rinduku Cintamu” untuk sinetronnya dengan judul yang sama. Selama Ramadhan, sinetron ini diputar di SCTV pukul 21.00.
Sutradara Ayat-ayat Cinta, Hanung Bramantyo juga meminta lagu GIGI untuk film layar lebarnya yang berjudul “Doa yang Mengancam.” Kedua lagu itu adalah “Gerbang Cintamu, dan “Dosa Ini.” (baca track list album Jalan Kebenaran di bawah)
Sinemart memilih lagu “Jalan Kebenaran” untuk sinetron Ramadhan mereka. Sedangkan Astro senang dengan
http://www.gigionline.com/v2/detail.php?idnews=101
हिस्तोलोगी gigi
SISTEM PENCERNAAN
Sistem pencernaan terdiri atas : - saluran pencernaan
- kelenjar-kelenjar yang berhubungan
Fungsi :
a. ingesti dan digesti makanan
b. absorbsi sari makanan
c. eliminasi sisa makanan
Langkah-langkah proses pencernaan makanan:
1. Pencernaan di mulut dan rongga mulut: makanan digiling menjadi kecil-kecil oleh gigi dan dibasahi oleh saliva
2. Disalurkan melalui faring dan esophagus
3. Pencernaan di lambung dan usus halus: dalam usus halus diubah menjadi asaam-asam amino, monosakarida, gliserida dan unsure-unsur dasarnya yang lain.
4. Absorbsi air dalam usus besar: akibatnya isi yang tidak dicerna menjadi setengah padat (veses).
5. Veses dikeluarkan dari dalam tubuh melalui kloaka (bila ada) kemudian ke anus.
http://sharetoon.blogspot.com/2008/11/sistem-pencernaan_05.html
Tips Bagi Kamu yang Sudah dan Akan Menggunakan Kawat Gigi (Behel)
Bagi Kamu yang ingin mengenakan behel dan membuat gigi menjadi lebih rapi simak informasi menarik berikut ini:
= Dokter Khusus
Hanya dokter gigi tertentu yang bisa memasangkan behel yakni dokter spesialis orthodonti. Jadi jangan sembarangan pergi ke dokter gigi pastikan dia merupakan ahlinya.
= Pakai Karena Kebutuhan
Ini sangat penting bila kamu ingin memakai behel pastikan bahwa gigi kamu memang rusak. Jangan hanya karena ingin ikut tren atau gaya kamu ikut-ikutan memakainya karena memakai behel tidak semudah kelihatannya. Orang yang boleh mengenakannya adalah mereka yang memiliki gigi yang letaknya tidak pada tempatnya, bertumpuk dan berjejal-jejal sehingga kekurangan tempat, tumbuh terlalu jarang sehingga ada celah di antara gigi-gigi, atau letaknya terlalu maju atau mundur. Karena fungsi behel adalah merapikan gigi.
= Jenis Behel/Kawat Gigi
Ada berbagai jenis behel ada yang terbuat dari metal, clear/transparan yang berwarna seperti warna gigi. Untuk clear, bahannya bisa terbuat dari composite, porselin, atau plastik. Atau ada juga behel dengan penahan karet/karet pengikat bracket (kotak yang ditempel di gigi) ini paling disukai oleh kaula muda karena bantalan karetnya bisa berwarna-warni.
= Efek Behel
Setidaknya ada beberapa efek yang ditimbulkan bila mengenakan behel yakni, rasa sakit ketika pertama kali menggunakan behel. Lubang gigi dan karang gigi akan cepat terjadi karena tidak menyikat menyikat gigi dan menjaga kebersihan mulut. Belum lagi efek pada jariangan lunak, terutama pada gusi bibir dan pipi lebih mudah timbul radang gusi dan sariawan.
= Tahapan Pemakaian
Sebelum mengenakan behel ada beberapa tahapan yang mesti dilakukan yakni, membuat cetakan model gigi, memotret gigi, merontgen gigi, kepala, serta wajah pasien secara keseluruhan. Ini semua agar perawatan benar-benar sempurna dan tidak asal-asalan karena biasanya ketika dipakaikan behel wajah jadi berubah. Biasanya gigi yang menumpuk-numpuk terjadi karena rahang kecil, jadi giginya harus dikurangi beberapa.
= Hal Yang Dilarang
Mencoba melepas atau menyetel kawat gigi yang sudah dipasang karena bisa merubah susunan yang telah ditetapkan. Memakan permen karet, permen keras, daging yang liat, keripik, kerupuk yang keras. Mengutakatik sendiri bracket yang lepas atau kawat yang menusuk gigi. Ini sangat berbahaya hubungi dokter untuk penangulangannya.
= Wajib Dilakukan
Ada beberapa hal yang wajib dilakukan bila kamu menggunakan behel yakni, rajin membersihkan gigi setiap makan, selalu sediakan tusuk gigi. Serta jangan lupa untuk membawa sikat gigi untuk bersihkan sisa-sisa makanan yang nempel di bracket. Gunakan sikat gigi khusus untuk perawatan orthodonti atau sikat gigi anak -anak, yang bulu sikatnya lembut agar tidak merusak bracket. Kontrol gigi sesuai jadwal yang ditentukan dokter. Iris kecil-kecil semua makanan yang masuk dan kunyah secara perlahan-lahan. Bila memakai karet elastik atau head gear, pasang sesuai dengan petunjuk dokter gigi. (rb/pit)
.:rileks.com:।
http://www.tipsmanfaat.com/tips-bagi-kamu-yang-sudah-dan-akan-menggunakan-kawat-gigi-behel.html
Ke Dentist
Kemaren anterin An2 ke dentist soalnya gigi permanennya udah numbuh, dan numbuhnya nga normal alias dibelakang gigi susu , karena gigi permanen numbuh di belakang gigi susu jadi gigi susunya goyang.
Menurut Dentistnya Gigi permanennya An2 bakalan nga beraturan karna rahangnya gede, gigi susunya masih kuat dan dempet2 dan parahnya gigi permanen yg baru tumbuh pada gede2 alamat ntar kudu pake behel 
. Padahal gw demen bgt ama gigi susunya yg rata bgt trus karna dia rajin gosok gigi jadi gigi susunya putih bersih nga kyk emaknya 
. Sebenarnya gigi susu bagusnya jarang2 jadi pertumbuhaan gigi permanen akan rata .
. Padahal gw demen bgt ama gigi susunya yg rata bgt trus karna dia rajin gosok gigi jadi gigi susunya putih bersih nga kyk emaknya . Sebenarnya gigi susu bagusnya jarang2 jadi pertumbuhaan gigi permanen akan rata . Sebelum nyabut gigi ke dentist An2 nanya2 dulu ke keponakan gw yg laen sakit nga kalo giginya dicabut trus pada bilang sakit, tambah jiper dienya. Pas sampe di dentist agak2 takut disuruh buka mulut malah tutup mata , nga taunya cuma diolesin gel strawberry abis itu langsung dicabut pas disuruh kumur ngeliat darah langsung air matanya berlinang ekekekek... takut katanya darahnya kog banyak bgt . Pas liat An2 nangis si Phing yg tadinya anteng and pengen sekalian diperiksa giginya jadi ikutan nangis dan nga mau di periksa and minta keluar ruangan
, nga taunya cuma diolesin gel strawberry abis itu langsung dicabut pas disuruh kumur ngeliat darah langsung air matanya berlinang ekekekek... takut katanya darahnya kog banyak bgt . Pas liat An2 nangis si Phing yg tadinya anteng and pengen sekalian diperiksa giginya jadi ikutan nangis dan nga mau di periksa and minta keluar ruangan Dibawah penampakan gigi permanennya, menjorok kedalam ya dan sampingnya belum boleh dicabut ।
http://angelo-angelina.blogspot.com/2008/11/ke-dentist.html
।http://angelo-angelina.blogspot.com/2008/11/ke-dentist.html
kerusakan gigi pada ibu hamil
Ditulis pada Nopember 18, 2008 oleh bayikita
Sumber artikel dari http://www.pdgi-online.com dan juga ada di www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/1002/06/1005.htm
Dok, kenapa jika saya sedang hamil, gigi dan gusi seringkali terasa sakit. Gusi mudah berdarah di beberapa tempat dan bentuknya berbenjol-benjol?
Demikian keluhan ibu hamil ketika mengunjungi dokter gigi. Kehadiran anak bagi setiap keluarga adalah sesuatu yang sangat istimewa dan dinanti-nantikan kehadirannya. Kehamilan adalah masa-masa yang penuh perhatian, baik untuk ibu hamil juga si jabang bayi.
Pada saat ini ibu hamil betul-betul harus menjaga kondisi kesehatan dengan baik, mengonsumsi berbagai jenis makanan dan vitamin demi kesehatan ibu dan bayinya. Kehamilan adalah suatu proses fisiologis yang dapat menimbulkan perubahan-perubahan pada tubuh wanita, baik fisik maupun psikis.
Keadaan ini disebabkan adanya perubahan hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Saat kehamilan disertai berbagai keluhan lain seperti ngidam, mual, muntah termasuk keluhan sakit gigi dan mulut. Kondisi gigi dan mulut ibu hamil seringkali ditandai dengan adanya pembesaran gusi yang mudah berdarah karena jaringan gusi merespons secara berlebihan terhadap iritasi lokal.
Bentuk iritasi lokal ini berupa karang gigi, gigi berlubang, susunan gigi tidak rata atau adanya sisa akar gigi yang tidak dicabut. Hal ini sangat berbeda dengan keadaan ibu pada saat tidak hamil.
Pembesaran gusi ibu hamil biasa dimulai pada trisemester pertama sampai ketiga masa kehamilan. Keadaan ini disebabkan aktivitas hormonal yaitu hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Hormon progesteron pengaruhnya lebih besar terhadap proses inflamasi/peradangan. Pembesaran gusi akan mengalami penurunan pada kehamilan bulan ke-9 dan beberapa hari setelah melahirkan. Keadaannya akan kembali normal seperti sebelum hamil.
Pembesaran gusi ini dapat mengenai/menyerang pada semua tempat atau beberapa tempat (single/multiple) bentuk membulat, permukaan licin mengilat, berwarna merah menyala, konsistensi lunak, mudah berdarah bila kena sentuhan.
Pembesaran gusi ini di dunia kedokteran gigi disebut gingivitis gravidarum/pregnancy gravidarum/hyperplasia gravidarum sering muncul pada trisemester pertama kehamilan. Keadaan di atas tidaklah harus sama bagi setiap ibu hamil.
Faktor penyebab timbulnya gingivitis pada masa kehamilan dapat dibagi 2 bagian, yaitu penyebab primer dan sekunder.
1. Penyebab primer
Iritasi lokal seperti plak merupakan penyebab primer gingivitis masa kehamilan sama halnya seperti pada ibu yang tidak hamil, tetapi perubahan hormonal yang menyertai kehamilan dapat memperberat reaksi peradangan pada gusi oleh iritasi lokal.
Iritasi lokal tersebut adalah kalkulus/plak yang telah mengalami pengapuran, sisa-sisa makanan, tambalan kurang baik, gigi tiruan yang kurang baik.
Saat kehamilan terjadi perubahan dalam pemeliharaan kebersihan gigi dan mulut yang bisa disebabkan oleh timbulnya perasaan mual, muntah, perasaan takut ketika menggosok gigi karena timbul perdarahan gusi atau ibu terlalu lelah dengan kehamilannya sehingga ibu malas menggosok gigi. Keadaan ini dengan sendirinya akan menambah penumpukan plak sehingga memperburuk keadaan.
2. Penyebab sekunder
Kehamilan merupakan keadan fisiologis yang menyebabkan perubahan keseimbangan hormonal, terutama perubahan hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Peningkatan konsentrasi hormon estrogen dan progesteron pada masa kehamilan mempunyai efek bervariasi pada jaringan, di antaranya pelebaran pembuluh darah yang mengakibatkan bertambahnya aliran darah sehingga gusi menjadi lebih merah, bengkak dan mudah mengalami perdarahan.
Akan tetapi, jika kebersihan mulut terpelihara dengan baik selama kehamilan, perubahan mencolok pada jaringan gusi jarang terjadi. Keadaan klinis jaringan gusi selama kehamilan tidak berbeda jauh dengan jaringan gusi wanita yang tidak hamil, di antaranya;
a. Warna gusi, jaringan gusi yang mengalami peradangan berwarna merah terang sampai kebiruan, kadang-kadang berwarna merah tua.
b. Kontur gusi, reaksi peradangan lebih banyak terlihat di daerah sela-sela gigi dan pinggiran gusi terlihat membulat.
c. Konsistensi, daerah sela gigi dan pinggiran gusi terlihat bengkak, halus dan mengkilat. Bagian gusi yang membengkak akan melekuk bila ditekan, lunak, dan lentur.
d. Risiko perdarahan, warna merah tua menandakan bertambahnya aliran darah, keadaan ini akan meningkatkan risiko perdarahan gusi.
e. Luas peradangan, radang gusi pada masa kehamilan dapat terjadi secara lokal maupun menyeluruh. Proses peradangan dapat meluas sampai di bawah jaringan periodontal dan menyebabkan kerusakan lebih lanjut pada struktur tersebut.
Tindakan penanggulangan/perawatan radang gusi pada ibu hamil dibagi dalam 4 tahap, yaitu:
1. Tahap jaringan lunak, iritasi lokal merupakan penyebab timbulnya gingivitis. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dari penanggulangan gingivitis selama kehamilan adalah menghilangkan semua jenis iritasi lokal yang ada seperti plak, kalkulus, sisa makanan, perbaikan tambalan, dan perbaikan gigi tiruan yang kurng baik.
2. Tahap fungsional, tahap ini melakukan perbaikan fungsi gigi dan mulut seperti pembuatan tambalan pada gigi yang berlubang, pembuatan gigi tiruan, dll.
3. Tahap sistemik, tahap ini sangat diperhatikan sekali kesehatan ibu hamil secara menyeluruh, melakukan perawatan dan pencegahan gingivitis selama kehamilan. Keadaan ini penting diketahui karena sangat menentukan perawatan yang akan dilakukan.
4. Tahap pemeliharaan, tahap ini dilakukan untuk mencegah kambuhnya penyakit periodontal setelah perawatan. Tindakan yang dilakukan adalah pemeliharaan kebersihan mulut di rumah dan pemeriksaan secara periodik kesehatan jaringan periodontal.
Sebagai tindakan pencegahan agar gingivitis selama masa kehamilan tidak terjadi, setiap ibu hamil harus memperhatikan kebersihan mulut di rumah atau pemeriksaan secara berkala oleh dokter gigi sehingga semua iritasi lokal selama kehamilan dapat terdeteksi lebih dini dan dapat dihilangkan secepat mungkin. (drg. R. Ginandjar Aslama Maulid)
Penulis adalah dokter gigi di RS Al Islam Bandung।
kerusakan gigi pada ibu hamil
Ditulis pada Nopember 18, 2008 oleh bayikita
Sumber artikel dari http://www.pdgi-online.com dan juga ada di www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/1002/06/1005.htm
Dok, kenapa jika saya sedang hamil, gigi dan gusi seringkali terasa sakit. Gusi mudah berdarah di beberapa tempat dan bentuknya berbenjol-benjol?
Demikian keluhan ibu hamil ketika mengunjungi dokter gigi. Kehadiran anak bagi setiap keluarga adalah sesuatu yang sangat istimewa dan dinanti-nantikan kehadirannya. Kehamilan adalah masa-masa yang penuh perhatian, baik untuk ibu hamil juga si jabang bayi.
Pada saat ini ibu hamil betul-betul harus menjaga kondisi kesehatan dengan baik, mengonsumsi berbagai jenis makanan dan vitamin demi kesehatan ibu dan bayinya. Kehamilan adalah suatu proses fisiologis yang dapat menimbulkan perubahan-perubahan pada tubuh wanita, baik fisik maupun psikis.
Keadaan ini disebabkan adanya perubahan hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Saat kehamilan disertai berbagai keluhan lain seperti ngidam, mual, muntah termasuk keluhan sakit gigi dan mulut. Kondisi gigi dan mulut ibu hamil seringkali ditandai dengan adanya pembesaran gusi yang mudah berdarah karena jaringan gusi merespons secara berlebihan terhadap iritasi lokal.
Bentuk iritasi lokal ini berupa karang gigi, gigi berlubang, susunan gigi tidak rata atau adanya sisa akar gigi yang tidak dicabut. Hal ini sangat berbeda dengan keadaan ibu pada saat tidak hamil.
Pembesaran gusi ibu hamil biasa dimulai pada trisemester pertama sampai ketiga masa kehamilan. Keadaan ini disebabkan aktivitas hormonal yaitu hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Hormon progesteron pengaruhnya lebih besar terhadap proses inflamasi/peradangan. Pembesaran gusi akan mengalami penurunan pada kehamilan bulan ke-9 dan beberapa hari setelah melahirkan. Keadaannya akan kembali normal seperti sebelum hamil.
Pembesaran gusi ini dapat mengenai/menyerang pada semua tempat atau beberapa tempat (single/multiple) bentuk membulat, permukaan licin mengilat, berwarna merah menyala, konsistensi lunak, mudah berdarah bila kena sentuhan.
Pembesaran gusi ini di dunia kedokteran gigi disebut gingivitis gravidarum/pregnancy gravidarum/hyperplasia gravidarum sering muncul pada trisemester pertama kehamilan. Keadaan di atas tidaklah harus sama bagi setiap ibu hamil.
Faktor penyebab timbulnya gingivitis pada masa kehamilan dapat dibagi 2 bagian, yaitu penyebab primer dan sekunder.
1. Penyebab primer
Iritasi lokal seperti plak merupakan penyebab primer gingivitis masa kehamilan sama halnya seperti pada ibu yang tidak hamil, tetapi perubahan hormonal yang menyertai kehamilan dapat memperberat reaksi peradangan pada gusi oleh iritasi lokal.
Iritasi lokal tersebut adalah kalkulus/plak yang telah mengalami pengapuran, sisa-sisa makanan, tambalan kurang baik, gigi tiruan yang kurang baik.
Saat kehamilan terjadi perubahan dalam pemeliharaan kebersihan gigi dan mulut yang bisa disebabkan oleh timbulnya perasaan mual, muntah, perasaan takut ketika menggosok gigi karena timbul perdarahan gusi atau ibu terlalu lelah dengan kehamilannya sehingga ibu malas menggosok gigi. Keadaan ini dengan sendirinya akan menambah penumpukan plak sehingga memperburuk keadaan.
2. Penyebab sekunder
Kehamilan merupakan keadan fisiologis yang menyebabkan perubahan keseimbangan hormonal, terutama perubahan hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Peningkatan konsentrasi hormon estrogen dan progesteron pada masa kehamilan mempunyai efek bervariasi pada jaringan, di antaranya pelebaran pembuluh darah yang mengakibatkan bertambahnya aliran darah sehingga gusi menjadi lebih merah, bengkak dan mudah mengalami perdarahan.
Akan tetapi, jika kebersihan mulut terpelihara dengan baik selama kehamilan, perubahan mencolok pada jaringan gusi jarang terjadi. Keadaan klinis jaringan gusi selama kehamilan tidak berbeda jauh dengan jaringan gusi wanita yang tidak hamil, di antaranya;
a. Warna gusi, jaringan gusi yang mengalami peradangan berwarna merah terang sampai kebiruan, kadang-kadang berwarna merah tua.
b. Kontur gusi, reaksi peradangan lebih banyak terlihat di daerah sela-sela gigi dan pinggiran gusi terlihat membulat.
c. Konsistensi, daerah sela gigi dan pinggiran gusi terlihat bengkak, halus dan mengkilat. Bagian gusi yang membengkak akan melekuk bila ditekan, lunak, dan lentur.
d. Risiko perdarahan, warna merah tua menandakan bertambahnya aliran darah, keadaan ini akan meningkatkan risiko perdarahan gusi.
e. Luas peradangan, radang gusi pada masa kehamilan dapat terjadi secara lokal maupun menyeluruh. Proses peradangan dapat meluas sampai di bawah jaringan periodontal dan menyebabkan kerusakan lebih lanjut pada struktur tersebut.
Tindakan penanggulangan/perawatan radang gusi pada ibu hamil dibagi dalam 4 tahap, yaitu:
1. Tahap jaringan lunak, iritasi lokal merupakan penyebab timbulnya gingivitis. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dari penanggulangan gingivitis selama kehamilan adalah menghilangkan semua jenis iritasi lokal yang ada seperti plak, kalkulus, sisa makanan, perbaikan tambalan, dan perbaikan gigi tiruan yang kurng baik.
2. Tahap fungsional, tahap ini melakukan perbaikan fungsi gigi dan mulut seperti pembuatan tambalan pada gigi yang berlubang, pembuatan gigi tiruan, dll.
3. Tahap sistemik, tahap ini sangat diperhatikan sekali kesehatan ibu hamil secara menyeluruh, melakukan perawatan dan pencegahan gingivitis selama kehamilan. Keadaan ini penting diketahui karena sangat menentukan perawatan yang akan dilakukan.
4. Tahap pemeliharaan, tahap ini dilakukan untuk mencegah kambuhnya penyakit periodontal setelah perawatan. Tindakan yang dilakukan adalah pemeliharaan kebersihan mulut di rumah dan pemeriksaan secara periodik kesehatan jaringan periodontal.
Sebagai tindakan pencegahan agar gingivitis selama masa kehamilan tidak terjadi, setiap ibu hamil harus memperhatikan kebersihan mulut di rumah atau pemeriksaan secara berkala oleh dokter gigi sehingga semua iritasi lokal selama kehamilan dapat terdeteksi lebih dini dan dapat dihilangkan secepat mungkin. (drg. R. Ginandjar Aslama Maulid)
Penulis adalah dokter gigi di RS Al Islam Bandung।
http://bayikita.wordpress.com/2008/11/18/kerusakan-gigi-pada-ibu-hamil/
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