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Tooth
Tooth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Teeth" redirects here. For the film, see Teeth (film).
Teeth
An adult human's teeth.
CGI posterior view of teeth taken from inside mouth
Dorlands/Elsevier Tooth
Teeth (singular, Tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or defense. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness.
Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing. Carnivores, on the other hand, need canines to kill and tear meat.
Mammals are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby," "milk," "primary" or "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.
Some animals develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont) while others develop many sets (polyphyodont). Sharks, for example, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, maintaining relatively constant length. Many rodents, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig[verification needed], have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[1][2]
Contents [hide]
1 Anatomy
2 Parts
2.1 Enamel
2.2 Dentin
2.3 Cementum
2.4 Pulp
3 Development
4 Eruption
5 Supporting structures
5.1 Periodontal ligaments
5.2 Alveolar bone
5.3 Gingiva
6 Tooth decay
6.1 Plaque
6.2 Caries (Cavities)
7 Tooth care
8 Restorations
9 Abnormalities
9.1 Digestive
9.1.1 Alteration during tooth development
9.1.2 Destruction after development
9.1.3 Discoloration
9.1.4 Alteration of eruption
9.2 Developmental
9.2.1 Abnormality in number
9.2.2 Abnormality in size
9.2.3 Abnormality in shape
9.2.4 Abnormality in structure
10 Non-human animals
11 See also
11.1 Lists
12 References
13 External links
Anatomy
A third molar.Main article: Dental anatomy
The bottom teeth are used more for the grinding of food and the top front teeth are mainly used for biting.
Dental anatomy is a field of anatomy dedicated to the study of tooth structures. The development, appearance, and classification of teeth fall within its field of study, though dental occlusion, or contact among teeth, does not. Dental anatomy is also a taxonomical science as it is concerned with the naming of teeth and their structures. This information serves a practical purpose for dentists, enabling them to easily identify teeth and structures during treatment.
The anatomic crown of a tooth is the area covered in enamel above the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[3] The majority of the crown is composed of dentin with the pulp chamber in the center.[4] The crown is within bone before eruption.[5] After eruption, it is almost always visible. The anatomic root is found below the cementoenamel junction and is covered with cementum. As with the crown, dentin composes most of the root, which normally have pulp canals. A tooth may have multiple roots or just one root. Canines and most premolars, except for maxillary (upper) first premolars, usually have one root. Maxillary first premolars and mandibular molars usually have two roots. Maxillary molars usually have three roots. Additional roots are referred to as supernumerary roots.
Models of human teeth as they exist within the alveolar bone.Humans usually have 20 primary teeth (also called deciduous, baby, or milk teeth) and 32 permanent teeth. Among primary teeth, 10 are found in the (upper) maxilla and the other 10 in the (lower) mandible. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, and molars. In the primary set of teeth, there are two types of incisors, centrals and laterals, and two types of molars, first and second. All primary teeth are replaced with permanent counterparts except for molars, which are replaced by permanent premolars. Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla with the other 16 in the mandible. The maxillary teeth are the maxillary central incisor, maxillary lateral incisor, maxillary canine, maxillary first premolar, maxillary second premolar, maxillary first molar, maxillary second molar, and maxillary third molar. The mandibular teeth are the mandibular central incisor, mandibular lateral incisor, mandibular canine, mandibular first premolar, mandibular second premolar, mandibular first molar, mandibular second molar, and mandibular third molar. Third molars are commonly called "wisdom teeth" and may never erupt into the mouth or form at all. If any additional teeth form, for example, fourth and fifth molars, which are rare, they are referred to as supernumerary teeth.[6]
Most teeth have identifiable features that distinguish them from others. There are several different notation systems to refer to a specific tooth. The three most commons systems are the FDI World Dental Federation notation, the universal numbering system, and Palmer notation method. The FDI system is used worldwide, and the universal is used widely in the United States.
Parts
Section of a human molar
Enamel
Main article: Tooth enamel
Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body and is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.[7] It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material composing the rest.[8] The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[9]
Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate.[10] The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness.[11] Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support.[10] Unlike dentin and bone, enamel does not contain collagen. Instead, it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions.[12]
Dentin
Main article: Dentin
Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber. It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp.[13] The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis. The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70% inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10% water by weight.[14] Because it is softer than enamel, it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated, but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth.
Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. Dentin has microscopic channels, called dentinal tubules, which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border.[15] The diameter of these tubules range from 2.5 μm near the pulp, to 1.2 μm in the midportion, and 900 nm near the dentino-enamel junction.[16] Although they may have tiny side-branches, the tubules do not intersect with each other. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined.
Cementum
Main article: Cementum
Cementum is a specialized bony substance covering the root of a tooth.[13] It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root.[17] The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.[18]
Pulp
Main article: Pulp (tooth)
The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue.[14] This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root.[19] Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts, which initiate the formation of dentin.[14] Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts, preodontoblasts, macrophages and T lymphocytes.[20] The pulp is commonly called "the nerve" of the tooth.
Development
Main article: Tooth development
Radiograph of lower right third, second, and first molars in different stages of development.Tooth development is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells, grow, and erupt into the mouth. Although many diverse species have teeth, non-human tooth development is largely the same as in humans. For human teeth to have a healthy oral environment, enamel, dentin, cementum, and the periodontium must all develop during appropriate stages of fetal development. Primary (baby) teeth start to form between the sixth and eighth weeks in utero, and permanent teeth begin to form in the twentieth week in utero.[21] If teeth do not start to develop at or near these times, they will not develop at all.
A significant amount of research has focused on determining the processes that initiate tooth development. It is widely accepted that there is a factor within the tissues of the first branchial arch that is necessary for the development of teeth.[22]
Tooth development is commonly divided into the following stages: the bud stage, the cap, the bell, and finally maturation. The staging of tooth development is an attempt to categorize changes that take place along a continuum; frequently it is difficult to decide what stage should be assigned to a particular developing tooth.[22] This determination is further complicated by the varying appearance of different histologic sections of the same developing tooth, which can appear to be different stages.
The tooth bud (sometimes called the tooth germ) is an aggregation of cells that eventually forms a tooth. It is organized into three parts: the enamel organ, the dental papilla and the dental follicle.[23] The enamel organ is composed of the outer enamel epithelium, inner enamel epithelium, stellate reticulum and stratum intermedium.[23] These cells give rise to ameloblasts, which produce enamel and the reduced enamel epithelium. The growth of cervical loop cells into the deeper tissues forms Hertwig's Epithelial Root Sheath, which determines a tooth's root shape. The dental papilla contains cells that develop into odontoblasts, which are dentin-forming cells.[23] Additionally, the junction between the dental papilla and inner enamel epithelium determines the crown shape of a tooth.[24] The dental follicle gives rise to three important entities: cementoblasts, osteoblasts, and fibroblasts. Cementoblasts form the cementum of a tooth. Osteoblasts give rise to the alveolar bone around the roots of teeth. Fibroblasts develop the periodontal ligaments which connect teeth to the alveolar bone through cementum.[25]
Eruption
Main article: Tooth eruption
Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age. These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts. This stage, during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth, is known as the mixed stage. The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth.
There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption. One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth.[26] Another, known as the cushioned hammock theory, resulted from microscopic study of teeth, which was thought to show a ligament around the root. It was later discovered that the "ligament" was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide.[27] Currently, the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process.[28]
The onset of primary tooth loss has been found to correlate strongly with somatic and psychological criteria of school readiness.[29][30]
Supporting structures
Histologic slide of tooth erupting into the mouth.
A: tooth
B: gingiva
C: bone
D: periodontal ligamentsThe periodontium is the supporting structure of a tooth, helping to attach the tooth to surrounding tissues and to allow sensations of touch and pressure.[31] It consists of the cementum, periodontal ligaments, alveolar bone, and gingiva. Of these, cementum is the only one that is a part of a tooth. Periodontal ligaments connect the alveolar bone to the cementum. Alveolar bone surrounds the roots of teeth to provide support and creates what is commonly called an alveolus, or "socket". Lying over the bone is the gingiva or gum, which is readily visible in the mouth.
Periodontal ligaments
The periodontal ligament is a specialized connective tissue that attaches the cementum of a tooth to the alveolar bone. This tissue covers the root of the tooth within the bone. Each ligament has a width of 0.15 - 0.38 mm, but this size decreases over time.[32] The functions of the periodontal ligaments include attachment of the tooth to the bone, support for the tooth, formation and resorption of bone during tooth movement, sensation, and eruption.[33] The cells of the periodontal ligaments include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, fibroblasts, macrophages, cementoblasts, and epithelial cell rests of Malassez.[34] Consisting of mostly Type I and III collagen, the fibers are grouped in bundles and named according to their location. The groups of fibers are named alveolar crest, horizontal, oblique, periapical, and interradicular fibers.[35] The nerve supply generally enters from the bone apical to the tooth and forms a network around the tooth toward the crest of the gingiva.[36] When pressure is exerted on a tooth, such as during chewing or biting, the tooth moves slightly in its socket and puts tension on the periodontal ligaments. The nerve fibers can then send the information to the central nervous system for interpretation.
Alveolar bone
The alveolar bone is the bone of the jaw which forms the alveolus around teeth.[37] Like any other bone in the human body, alveolar bone is modified throughout life. Osteoblasts create bone and osteoclasts destroy it, especially if force is placed on a tooth.[31] As is the case when movement of teeth is attempted through orthodontics, an area of bone under compressive force from a tooth moving toward it has a high osteoclast level, resulting in bone resorption. An area of bone receiving tension from periodontal ligaments attached to a tooth moving away from it has a high number of osteoblasts, resulting in bone formation.
Gingiva
The gingiva ("gums") is the mucosal tissue that overlays the jaws. There are three different types of epithelium associated with the gingiva: gingival, junctional, and sulcular epithelium. These three types form from a mass of epithelial cells known as the epithelial cuff between the tooth and the mouth.[38] The gingival epithelium is not associated directly with tooth attachment and is visible in the mouth. The junctional epithelium, composed of the basal lamina and hemidesmosomes, forms an attachment to the tooth.[33] The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue on the gingiva which touches but is not attached to the tooth.[39] This leaves a small potential space between the gingiva and tooth which can collect bacteria, plaque, and calculus.
Tooth decay
Plaque
Main article: Dental plaque
Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of various bacteria that form on teeth.[40] If not removed regularly, plaque buildup can lead to dental cavities (caries) or periodontal problems such as gingivitis. Given time, plaque can mineralize along the gingiva, forming tartar. The microorganisms that form the biofilm are almost entirely bacteria (mainly streptococcus and anaerobes), with the composition varying by location in the mouth.[41] Streptococcus mutans is the most important bacteria associated with dental caries.
Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods, especially sugars and starches. In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid, which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel.[13][42] This process, known as "demineralisation", leads to tooth destruction. Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH. This causes 'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria.
Caries (Cavities)
Advanced tooth decay on a premolar.Main article: Dental caries
Dental caries, also described as "tooth decay" or "dental cavities", is an infectious disease which damages the structures of teeth.[43] The disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Dental caries has a long history, with evidence showing the disease was present in the Bronze, Iron, and Middle ages but also prior to the neolithic period.[44] The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with diet changes.[44][45] Today, caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. In the United States, dental caries is the most common chronic childhood disease, being at least five times more common than asthma.[46] Countries that have experienced an overall decrease in cases of tooth decay continue to have a disparity in the distribution of the disease.[47] Among children in the United States and Europe, 60-80% of cases of dental caries occur in 20% of the population.[48]
Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.[49][50] The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.[51]
Tooth care
Toothbrushes are commonly used to clean teeth.Main article: Oral hygiene
Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth clean and is a means of preventing dental caries, gingivitis, periodontal disease, bad breath, and other dental disorders. It consists of both professional and personal care. Regular cleanings, usually done by dentists and dental hygienists, remove tartar (mineralized plaque) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, using various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from teeth.
The purpose of cleaning teeth is to remove plaque, which consists mostly of bacteria.[52] Healthcare professionals recommend regular brushing twice a day (in the morning and in the evening, or after meals) in order to prevent formation of plaque and tartar.[51] A toothbrush is able to remove most plaque, excepting areas between teeth. As a result, flossing is also considered a necessity to maintain oral hygiene. When used correctly, dental floss removes plaque from between teeth and at the gum line, where periodontal disease often begins and could develop caries. Electric toothbrushes are not considered more effective than manual brushes for most people.[53] The most important advantage of electric toothbrushes is their ability to aid people with dexterity difficulties, such as those associated with rheumatoid arthritis.
In addition, fluoride therapy is often recommended to protect against dental caries, water fluoridation and fluoride supplements decrease the incidence of dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent dental decay by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel.[54] The incorporated fluoride makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and thus more resistant to decay.[55] Topical fluoride, such as a fluoride toothpaste or mouthwash, is also recommended to protect teeth surfaces. Many dentists include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine cleanings.
Restorations
After a tooth has been damaged or destroyed, restoration of the missing structure can be achieved with a variety of treatments. Restorations may be created from a variety of materials, including glass ionomer, amalgam, gold, porcelain, and composite.[56] Small restorations placed inside a tooth are referred to as "intracoronal restorations". These restorations may be formed directly in the mouth or may be cast using the lost-wax technique, such as for some inlays and onlays. When larger portions of a tooth are lost, an "extracoronal restoration" may be fabricated, such as a crown or a veneer, to restore the involved tooth.
Picture of a restored premolar.When a tooth is lost, dentures, bridges, or implants may be used as replacements.[57] Dentures are usually the least costly whereas implants are usually the most expensive. Dentures may replace complete arches of the mouth or only a partial number of teeth. Bridges replace smaller spaces of missing teeth and use adjacent teeth to support the restoration. Dental implants may be used to replace a single tooth or a series of teeth. Though implants are the most expensive treatment option, they are often the most desirable restoration because of their aesthetics and function. To improve the function of dentures, implants may be used as support.[58]
Abnormalities
Tooth abnormalities may be categorized according to whether they have environmental or developmental causes.[59] While environmental abnormalities may appear to have an obvious cause, there may not appear to be any known cause for some developmental abnormalities. Environmental forces may affect teeth during development, destroy tooth structure after development, discolor teeth at any stage of development, or alter the course of tooth eruption. Developmental abnormalities most commonly affect the number, size, shape, and structure of teeth.
Digestive
Alteration during tooth development
Tooth abnormalities caused by environmental factors during tooth development have long-lasting effects. Enamel and dentin do not regenerate after they mineralize initially. Enamel hypoplasia is a condition in which the amount of enamel formed is inadequate.[60] This results either in pits and grooves in areas of the tooth or in widespread absence of enamel. Diffuse opacities of enamel does not affect the amount of enamel but changes its appearance. Affected enamel has a different translucency than the rest of the tooth. Demarcated opacities of enamel have sharp boundaries where the translucency decreases and manifest a white, cream, yellow, or brown color. All these may be caused by a systemic event, such as an exanthematous fever.[61] Turner's hypoplasia is a portion of missing or diminished enamel on a permanent tooth usually from a prior infection of a nearby primary tooth. Hypoplasia may also result from antineoplastic therapy. Dental fluorosis is condition which results from ingesting excessive amounts of fluoride and leads to teeth which are spotted, yellow, brown, black or sometimes pitted. Enamel hypoplasia resulting from syphilis is frequently referred to as Hutchinson's teeth, which is considered one part of Hutchinson's triad.[62]
Destruction after development
Tooth destruction from processes other than dental caries is considered a normal physiologic process but may become severe enough to become a pathologic condition. Attrition is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from opposing teeth.[63] Attrition initially affects the enamel and, if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying dentin. Abrasion is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element.[64] If this force begins at the cementoenamel junction, then progression of tooth loss can be rapid since enamel is very thin in this region of the tooth. A common source of this type of tooth wear is excessive force when using a toothbrush. Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin.[65][66] Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the teeth to gastric acids. Another important source of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice. Abfraction is the loss of tooth structure from flexural forces. As teeth flex under pressure, the arrangement of teeth touching each other, known as occlusion, causes tension on one side of the tooth and compression on the other side of the tooth. This is believed to cause V-shaped depressions on the side under tension and C-shaped depressions on the side under compression. When tooth destruction occurs at the roots of teeth, the process is referred to as internal resorption, when caused by cells within the pulp, or external resorption, when caused by cells in the periodontal ligament.
Discoloration
Discoloration of teeth may result from bacteria stains, tobacco, tea, coffee, foods with an abundance of chlorophyll, restorative materials, and medications.[67] Stains from bacteria may cause colors varying from green to black to orange. Green stains also result from foods with chlorophyll or excessive exposure to copper or nickel. Amalgam, a common dental restorative material, may turn adjacent areas of teeth black or gray. Chlorhexidine, a mouthwash, is associated with causing yellow-brown stains near the gingiva on teeth. Systemic disorders also can cause tooth discoloration. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes porphyrins to be deposited in teeth, causing a red-brown coloration. Blue discoloration may occur with alkaptonuria and rarely with Parkinson's disease. Erythroblastosis fetalis and biliary atresia are diseases which may cause teeth to appear green from the deposition of biliverdin. Also, trauma may change a tooth to a pink, yellow, or dark gray color. Pink and red discolorations are also associated in patients with lepromatous leprosy. Some medications, such as tetracycline antibiotics, may become incorporated into the structure of a tooth, causing intrinsic staining of the teeth.
Alteration of eruption
Tooth eruption may be altered by some environmental factors. When eruption is prematurely stopped, the tooth is said to be impacted. The most common cause of tooth impaction is lack of space in the mouth for the tooth.[68] Other causes may be tumors, cysts, trauma, and thickened bone or soft tissue. Ankylosis of a tooth occurs when the tooth has already erupted into the mouth but the cementum or dentin has fused with the alveolar bone. This may cause a person to retain their primary tooth instead of having it replaced by a permanent one.
A technique for altering the natural progression of eruption is employed by orthodontists who wish to delay or speed up the eruption of certain teeth for reasons of space maintenance or otherwise preventing crowding and/or spacing. If a primary tooth is extracted prior to the root of its succeeding permanent tooth reaching ⅓ of its total growth, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be delayed. Conversely, if the roots of the permanent tooth are more than ⅔ complete, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be accelerated. Between ⅓ and ⅔, it is unknown exactly what will occur to the speed of eruption.
Developmental
Abnormality in number
Anodontia is the total lack of tooth development. Hyperdontia is the presence of a higher-than-normal number of teeth, where as Hypodontia is the lack of some teeth. Usually, hypodontia refers to the lack of development of one or more teeth, and oligodontia may be used to describe the absence of 6 or more teeth. Some systemic disorders which may result in hyperdontia include Apert syndrome, Cleidocranial dysostosis, Crouzon syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Gardner syndrome, and Sturge-Weber syndrome.[69] Some systemic disorders which may result in hypodontia include Crouzon syndrome, Ectodermal dysplasia, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and Gorlin syndrome.[70]
Abnormality in size
Microdontia is a condition where teeth are smaller than the usual size, and macrodontia is where teeth are larger than the usual size. Microdontia of a single tooth is more likely to occur in a maxillary lateral incisor. The second most likely tooth to have microdontia are third molars. Macrodontia of all the teeth is known to occur in pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia. It may also occur on one side of the face in cases of hemifacial hyperplasia.
Abnormality in shape
The fusion of two deciduous teeth.Gemination occurs when a developing tooth incompletely splits into the formation of two teeth. Fusion is the union of two adjacent teeth during development. Concrescence is the fusion of two separate teeth only in their cementum. Accessory cusps are additional cusps on a tooth and may manifest as a Talon cusp, Cusp of Carabelli, or Dens evaginatus. Dens invaginatus, also called Dens in dente, is a deep invagination in a tooth causing the appearance of a tooth within a tooth. Ectopic enamel is enamel found in an unusual location, such as the root of a tooth. Taurodontism is a condition where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged, and is associated with Klinefelter syndrome, Tricho-dento-osseous syndrome, Triple X syndrome, and XYY syndrome.[71] Hypercementosis is excessive formation of cementum, which may result from trauma, inflammation, acromegaly, rheumatic fever, and Paget's disease of bone.[71] A dilaceration is a bend in the root which may have been caused by trauma to the tooth during formation. Supernumerary roots is the presence of a greater number of roots on a tooth than expected.
Abnormality in structure
Amelogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which enamel does not form properly or at all.[72] Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which dentin does not form properly and is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta.[73] Dentin dysplasia is a disorder in which the roots and pulp of teeth may be affected. Regional odontodysplasia is a disorder affecting enamel, dentin, and pulp and causes the teeth to appear "ghostly" on radiographs.[74]
Non-human animals
Section through the ivory tusk of a mammothMain article: Tooth (animal)
Teeth of Great White SharkTeeth vary greatly among animals. Some animals, such as turtles and tortoises, are toothless. Others, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[75] Dog teeth are less likely than human teeth to form dental caries because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[76] Unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel and must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[77] Horse teeth include twelve premolars, twelve molars, and twelve incisors. Whale teeth have some similarities and differences from human teeth. Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human to protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. As mentioned, the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface. Whale teeth have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at its tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel.[78] The structure of horse teeth is different from human teeth as the enamel and dentin layers are intertwined.[79]
See also
Look up tooth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
teethBarodontalgia
Braces
Dental auxiliary
Dental assistant
Dental hygienist
Dental technician
Dental notation
Dental tourism
Dentistry
Dragon's teeth (mythology)
Head and neck anatomy
Language
Tooth Fairy
Tooth painting
Vocal tract
Lists
List of basic dentistry topics
List of oral health and dental topics
References
^ Tummers M and Thesleff I. Root or crown: a developmental choice orchestrated by the differential regulation of the epithelial stem cell niche in the tooth of two rodent species. Development (2003). 130(6):1049-57.
^ AM Hunt. A description of the molar teeth and investing tissues of normal guinea pigs. J Dent Res. (1959) 38(2):216-31.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 6. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 3. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 9. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
^ Kokten G, Balcioglu H, Buyukertan M. Supernumerary Fourth and Fifth Molars: A Report of Two Cases. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 2003 November; (4)4:067-076. Page accessed February 10, 2007.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, "Histology: a Text and Atlas", 4th ed. (Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002), p. 441.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 1.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
^ a b Johnson, Clarke. "Biology of the Human Dentition," 1998. Page accessed on January 24, 2007.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 198.
^ a b c Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 448. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ a b c Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 150. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 450. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 152. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 236. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 241. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 451. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Walton, Richard E. and Mahmoud Torabinejad. Principles and Practice of Endodontics. 3rd ed. 2002. Pages 11-13. ISBN 0-7216-9160-9.
^ A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 95. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 81. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b c *University of Texas Medical Branch. "Lab Exercises: Tooth development." Page found here.
^ A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), pp. 86 and 102. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ *Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition, p. 453. 2003. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. pp. 1-3.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 3.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 5.
^ Ernst-Michael Kranich, "Anthropologie", in F. Bohnsack and E-M Kranich (eds.), Erziehungswissenschaft und Waldorfpädagogik, Reihe Pädagogik Beltz, Weinheim 1990, p. 126, citing F. Ilg and L. Ames (Gesell Institute), School Readiness, p. 236ff
^ "...the loss of the first deciduous tooth can serve as a definite indicator of a male child's readiness for reading and schoolwork", Diss. Cornell U. Silvestro, John R. 1977. “Second Dentition and School Readiness.” New York State Dental Journal 43 (March): 155—8
^ a b Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 452. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 256. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 260. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Listgarten, Max A. "Histology of the Periodontium: Principal fibers of the periodontal ligament," hosted on the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University website. Created May 8, 1999, revised 01/16/2007. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 270. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 274. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Pages 247 and 248. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 280. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ "Oral Health Topics: Plaque", hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Introduction to dental plaque, hosted on the http://www.dentistry.leeds.ac.uk Leeds Dental Institute] website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Ophardt, Charles E. "Sugar and tooth decay", hosted on the Elmhurst College website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Dental Cavities, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, page accessed August 14, 2006.
^ a b Epidemiology of Dental Disease, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed January 9, 2007.
^ Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990.
^ Healthy People: 2010. Html version hosted on Healthy People.gov website. Page accessed August 13, 2006.
^ "Dental caries", from the Disease Control Priorities Project. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
^ Touger-Decker, Riva and Cor van Loveren. Sugars and dental caries, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 2003, pages 881S–892S.
^ Hardie, J.M. (1982). The microbiology of dental caries. Dental Update, 9, 199-208.
^ Holloway, P.J. (1983). The role of sugar in the etiology of dental caries. Journal of Dentistry, 11, 189-213.
^ a b Oral Health Topics: Cleaning your teeth and gums. Hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
^ Introduction to Dental Plaque. Hosted on the Leeds Dental Institute Website, page accessed August 14, 2006.
^ Thumbs down for electric toothbrush, hosted on the BBC News website, posted January 21, 2003. Page accessed January 23, 2007.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. "Oral Histology: development, structure, and function." 5th edition, 1998, p. 223. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. "Histology: a text and atlas." 4th edition, p. 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ "Oral Health Topics: Dental Filling Options", hosted on the ADA website, page accessed May 8, 2007.
^ "Prosthodontic Procedures", hosted on the The American College of Prosthodontists website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
^ "Dental Implants", hosted on the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 50. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. "Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion," 8th edition, p. 31.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 51. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Syphilis: Complications, hosted on the Mayo Clinic website. Page accessed January 21, 2007.
^ "Loss of Tooth Structure", hosted on the American Dental Hygiene Association website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ "Abnormalities of Teeth", hosted on the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Yip, Kevin H-K., Roger J. Smales, John A. Kaidonis. "The diagnosis and control of extrinsic acid erosion of tooth substance", hosted on the Academy of General Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Gandara B.K., Truelove E.L. "Diagnosis and Management of Dental Erosion", online version hosted on the The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice website. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 1999 October; (1)1, pages 16-23. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 63. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 66. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 70. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 69. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ a b Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 85. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Amelogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ Dentinogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ Cho, Shiu-yin, Conservative Management of Regional Odontodysplasia: Case Report, hosted on the Canadian Dental Association website. Issue 72(8): pp. 735–8. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ The Permanent Canine Teeth, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed February 5, 2007.
^ Chris C. Pinney, The Illustrated Veterinary Guide for Dogs, Cats, Birds, and Exotic Pets (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1992), p. 187.
^ Caceci, Thomas. Veterinary Histology with subtitle "Digestive System: Oral Cavity" found here.
^ "Common Characteristics of Whale Teeth" here
^ Encarta article found here and Randall-Bowman, whose link can be found here
External links
An article on the use of human tooth used as a neolithic pendant
An overview of dental anatomy
"Broke a tooth? Grow it back", University of Alberta
Straight Teeth
Tooth eruption chart
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Teeth" redirects here. For the film, see Teeth (film).
Teeth
An adult human's teeth.
CGI posterior view of teeth taken from inside mouth
Dorlands/Elsevier Tooth
Teeth (singular, Tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or defense. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness.
Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing. Carnivores, on the other hand, need canines to kill and tear meat.
Mammals are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby," "milk," "primary" or "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.
Some animals develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont) while others develop many sets (polyphyodont). Sharks, for example, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, maintaining relatively constant length. Many rodents, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig[verification needed], have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[1][2]
Contents [hide]
1 Anatomy
2 Parts
2.1 Enamel
2.2 Dentin
2.3 Cementum
2.4 Pulp
3 Development
4 Eruption
5 Supporting structures
5.1 Periodontal ligaments
5.2 Alveolar bone
5.3 Gingiva
6 Tooth decay
6.1 Plaque
6.2 Caries (Cavities)
7 Tooth care
8 Restorations
9 Abnormalities
9.1 Digestive
9.1.1 Alteration during tooth development
9.1.2 Destruction after development
9.1.3 Discoloration
9.1.4 Alteration of eruption
9.2 Developmental
9.2.1 Abnormality in number
9.2.2 Abnormality in size
9.2.3 Abnormality in shape
9.2.4 Abnormality in structure
10 Non-human animals
11 See also
11.1 Lists
12 References
13 External links
Anatomy
A third molar.Main article: Dental anatomy
The bottom teeth are used more for the grinding of food and the top front teeth are mainly used for biting.
Dental anatomy is a field of anatomy dedicated to the study of tooth structures. The development, appearance, and classification of teeth fall within its field of study, though dental occlusion, or contact among teeth, does not. Dental anatomy is also a taxonomical science as it is concerned with the naming of teeth and their structures. This information serves a practical purpose for dentists, enabling them to easily identify teeth and structures during treatment.
The anatomic crown of a tooth is the area covered in enamel above the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[3] The majority of the crown is composed of dentin with the pulp chamber in the center.[4] The crown is within bone before eruption.[5] After eruption, it is almost always visible. The anatomic root is found below the cementoenamel junction and is covered with cementum. As with the crown, dentin composes most of the root, which normally have pulp canals. A tooth may have multiple roots or just one root. Canines and most premolars, except for maxillary (upper) first premolars, usually have one root. Maxillary first premolars and mandibular molars usually have two roots. Maxillary molars usually have three roots. Additional roots are referred to as supernumerary roots.
Models of human teeth as they exist within the alveolar bone.Humans usually have 20 primary teeth (also called deciduous, baby, or milk teeth) and 32 permanent teeth. Among primary teeth, 10 are found in the (upper) maxilla and the other 10 in the (lower) mandible. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, and molars. In the primary set of teeth, there are two types of incisors, centrals and laterals, and two types of molars, first and second. All primary teeth are replaced with permanent counterparts except for molars, which are replaced by permanent premolars. Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla with the other 16 in the mandible. The maxillary teeth are the maxillary central incisor, maxillary lateral incisor, maxillary canine, maxillary first premolar, maxillary second premolar, maxillary first molar, maxillary second molar, and maxillary third molar. The mandibular teeth are the mandibular central incisor, mandibular lateral incisor, mandibular canine, mandibular first premolar, mandibular second premolar, mandibular first molar, mandibular second molar, and mandibular third molar. Third molars are commonly called "wisdom teeth" and may never erupt into the mouth or form at all. If any additional teeth form, for example, fourth and fifth molars, which are rare, they are referred to as supernumerary teeth.[6]
Most teeth have identifiable features that distinguish them from others. There are several different notation systems to refer to a specific tooth. The three most commons systems are the FDI World Dental Federation notation, the universal numbering system, and Palmer notation method. The FDI system is used worldwide, and the universal is used widely in the United States.
Parts
Section of a human molar
Enamel
Main article: Tooth enamel
Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body and is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.[7] It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material composing the rest.[8] The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[9]
Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate.[10] The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness.[11] Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support.[10] Unlike dentin and bone, enamel does not contain collagen. Instead, it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions.[12]
Dentin
Main article: Dentin
Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber. It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp.[13] The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis. The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70% inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10% water by weight.[14] Because it is softer than enamel, it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated, but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth.
Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. Dentin has microscopic channels, called dentinal tubules, which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border.[15] The diameter of these tubules range from 2.5 μm near the pulp, to 1.2 μm in the midportion, and 900 nm near the dentino-enamel junction.[16] Although they may have tiny side-branches, the tubules do not intersect with each other. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined.
Cementum
Main article: Cementum
Cementum is a specialized bony substance covering the root of a tooth.[13] It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root.[17] The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.[18]
Pulp
Main article: Pulp (tooth)
The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue.[14] This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root.[19] Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts, which initiate the formation of dentin.[14] Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts, preodontoblasts, macrophages and T lymphocytes.[20] The pulp is commonly called "the nerve" of the tooth.
Development
Main article: Tooth development
Radiograph of lower right third, second, and first molars in different stages of development.Tooth development is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells, grow, and erupt into the mouth. Although many diverse species have teeth, non-human tooth development is largely the same as in humans. For human teeth to have a healthy oral environment, enamel, dentin, cementum, and the periodontium must all develop during appropriate stages of fetal development. Primary (baby) teeth start to form between the sixth and eighth weeks in utero, and permanent teeth begin to form in the twentieth week in utero.[21] If teeth do not start to develop at or near these times, they will not develop at all.
A significant amount of research has focused on determining the processes that initiate tooth development. It is widely accepted that there is a factor within the tissues of the first branchial arch that is necessary for the development of teeth.[22]
Tooth development is commonly divided into the following stages: the bud stage, the cap, the bell, and finally maturation. The staging of tooth development is an attempt to categorize changes that take place along a continuum; frequently it is difficult to decide what stage should be assigned to a particular developing tooth.[22] This determination is further complicated by the varying appearance of different histologic sections of the same developing tooth, which can appear to be different stages.
The tooth bud (sometimes called the tooth germ) is an aggregation of cells that eventually forms a tooth. It is organized into three parts: the enamel organ, the dental papilla and the dental follicle.[23] The enamel organ is composed of the outer enamel epithelium, inner enamel epithelium, stellate reticulum and stratum intermedium.[23] These cells give rise to ameloblasts, which produce enamel and the reduced enamel epithelium. The growth of cervical loop cells into the deeper tissues forms Hertwig's Epithelial Root Sheath, which determines a tooth's root shape. The dental papilla contains cells that develop into odontoblasts, which are dentin-forming cells.[23] Additionally, the junction between the dental papilla and inner enamel epithelium determines the crown shape of a tooth.[24] The dental follicle gives rise to three important entities: cementoblasts, osteoblasts, and fibroblasts. Cementoblasts form the cementum of a tooth. Osteoblasts give rise to the alveolar bone around the roots of teeth. Fibroblasts develop the periodontal ligaments which connect teeth to the alveolar bone through cementum.[25]
Eruption
Main article: Tooth eruption
Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age. These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts. This stage, during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth, is known as the mixed stage. The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth.
There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption. One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth.[26] Another, known as the cushioned hammock theory, resulted from microscopic study of teeth, which was thought to show a ligament around the root. It was later discovered that the "ligament" was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide.[27] Currently, the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process.[28]
The onset of primary tooth loss has been found to correlate strongly with somatic and psychological criteria of school readiness.[29][30]
Supporting structures
Histologic slide of tooth erupting into the mouth.
A: tooth
B: gingiva
C: bone
D: periodontal ligamentsThe periodontium is the supporting structure of a tooth, helping to attach the tooth to surrounding tissues and to allow sensations of touch and pressure.[31] It consists of the cementum, periodontal ligaments, alveolar bone, and gingiva. Of these, cementum is the only one that is a part of a tooth. Periodontal ligaments connect the alveolar bone to the cementum. Alveolar bone surrounds the roots of teeth to provide support and creates what is commonly called an alveolus, or "socket". Lying over the bone is the gingiva or gum, which is readily visible in the mouth.
Periodontal ligaments
The periodontal ligament is a specialized connective tissue that attaches the cementum of a tooth to the alveolar bone. This tissue covers the root of the tooth within the bone. Each ligament has a width of 0.15 - 0.38 mm, but this size decreases over time.[32] The functions of the periodontal ligaments include attachment of the tooth to the bone, support for the tooth, formation and resorption of bone during tooth movement, sensation, and eruption.[33] The cells of the periodontal ligaments include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, fibroblasts, macrophages, cementoblasts, and epithelial cell rests of Malassez.[34] Consisting of mostly Type I and III collagen, the fibers are grouped in bundles and named according to their location. The groups of fibers are named alveolar crest, horizontal, oblique, periapical, and interradicular fibers.[35] The nerve supply generally enters from the bone apical to the tooth and forms a network around the tooth toward the crest of the gingiva.[36] When pressure is exerted on a tooth, such as during chewing or biting, the tooth moves slightly in its socket and puts tension on the periodontal ligaments. The nerve fibers can then send the information to the central nervous system for interpretation.
Alveolar bone
The alveolar bone is the bone of the jaw which forms the alveolus around teeth.[37] Like any other bone in the human body, alveolar bone is modified throughout life. Osteoblasts create bone and osteoclasts destroy it, especially if force is placed on a tooth.[31] As is the case when movement of teeth is attempted through orthodontics, an area of bone under compressive force from a tooth moving toward it has a high osteoclast level, resulting in bone resorption. An area of bone receiving tension from periodontal ligaments attached to a tooth moving away from it has a high number of osteoblasts, resulting in bone formation.
Gingiva
The gingiva ("gums") is the mucosal tissue that overlays the jaws. There are three different types of epithelium associated with the gingiva: gingival, junctional, and sulcular epithelium. These three types form from a mass of epithelial cells known as the epithelial cuff between the tooth and the mouth.[38] The gingival epithelium is not associated directly with tooth attachment and is visible in the mouth. The junctional epithelium, composed of the basal lamina and hemidesmosomes, forms an attachment to the tooth.[33] The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue on the gingiva which touches but is not attached to the tooth.[39] This leaves a small potential space between the gingiva and tooth which can collect bacteria, plaque, and calculus.
Tooth decay
Plaque
Main article: Dental plaque
Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of various bacteria that form on teeth.[40] If not removed regularly, plaque buildup can lead to dental cavities (caries) or periodontal problems such as gingivitis. Given time, plaque can mineralize along the gingiva, forming tartar. The microorganisms that form the biofilm are almost entirely bacteria (mainly streptococcus and anaerobes), with the composition varying by location in the mouth.[41] Streptococcus mutans is the most important bacteria associated with dental caries.
Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods, especially sugars and starches. In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid, which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel.[13][42] This process, known as "demineralisation", leads to tooth destruction. Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH. This causes 'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria.
Caries (Cavities)
Advanced tooth decay on a premolar.Main article: Dental caries
Dental caries, also described as "tooth decay" or "dental cavities", is an infectious disease which damages the structures of teeth.[43] The disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Dental caries has a long history, with evidence showing the disease was present in the Bronze, Iron, and Middle ages but also prior to the neolithic period.[44] The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with diet changes.[44][45] Today, caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. In the United States, dental caries is the most common chronic childhood disease, being at least five times more common than asthma.[46] Countries that have experienced an overall decrease in cases of tooth decay continue to have a disparity in the distribution of the disease.[47] Among children in the United States and Europe, 60-80% of cases of dental caries occur in 20% of the population.[48]
Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.[49][50] The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.[51]
Tooth care
Toothbrushes are commonly used to clean teeth.Main article: Oral hygiene
Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth clean and is a means of preventing dental caries, gingivitis, periodontal disease, bad breath, and other dental disorders. It consists of both professional and personal care. Regular cleanings, usually done by dentists and dental hygienists, remove tartar (mineralized plaque) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, using various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from teeth.
The purpose of cleaning teeth is to remove plaque, which consists mostly of bacteria.[52] Healthcare professionals recommend regular brushing twice a day (in the morning and in the evening, or after meals) in order to prevent formation of plaque and tartar.[51] A toothbrush is able to remove most plaque, excepting areas between teeth. As a result, flossing is also considered a necessity to maintain oral hygiene. When used correctly, dental floss removes plaque from between teeth and at the gum line, where periodontal disease often begins and could develop caries. Electric toothbrushes are not considered more effective than manual brushes for most people.[53] The most important advantage of electric toothbrushes is their ability to aid people with dexterity difficulties, such as those associated with rheumatoid arthritis.
In addition, fluoride therapy is often recommended to protect against dental caries, water fluoridation and fluoride supplements decrease the incidence of dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent dental decay by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel.[54] The incorporated fluoride makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and thus more resistant to decay.[55] Topical fluoride, such as a fluoride toothpaste or mouthwash, is also recommended to protect teeth surfaces. Many dentists include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine cleanings.
Restorations
After a tooth has been damaged or destroyed, restoration of the missing structure can be achieved with a variety of treatments. Restorations may be created from a variety of materials, including glass ionomer, amalgam, gold, porcelain, and composite.[56] Small restorations placed inside a tooth are referred to as "intracoronal restorations". These restorations may be formed directly in the mouth or may be cast using the lost-wax technique, such as for some inlays and onlays. When larger portions of a tooth are lost, an "extracoronal restoration" may be fabricated, such as a crown or a veneer, to restore the involved tooth.
Picture of a restored premolar.When a tooth is lost, dentures, bridges, or implants may be used as replacements.[57] Dentures are usually the least costly whereas implants are usually the most expensive. Dentures may replace complete arches of the mouth or only a partial number of teeth. Bridges replace smaller spaces of missing teeth and use adjacent teeth to support the restoration. Dental implants may be used to replace a single tooth or a series of teeth. Though implants are the most expensive treatment option, they are often the most desirable restoration because of their aesthetics and function. To improve the function of dentures, implants may be used as support.[58]
Abnormalities
Tooth abnormalities may be categorized according to whether they have environmental or developmental causes.[59] While environmental abnormalities may appear to have an obvious cause, there may not appear to be any known cause for some developmental abnormalities. Environmental forces may affect teeth during development, destroy tooth structure after development, discolor teeth at any stage of development, or alter the course of tooth eruption. Developmental abnormalities most commonly affect the number, size, shape, and structure of teeth.
Digestive
Alteration during tooth development
Tooth abnormalities caused by environmental factors during tooth development have long-lasting effects. Enamel and dentin do not regenerate after they mineralize initially. Enamel hypoplasia is a condition in which the amount of enamel formed is inadequate.[60] This results either in pits and grooves in areas of the tooth or in widespread absence of enamel. Diffuse opacities of enamel does not affect the amount of enamel but changes its appearance. Affected enamel has a different translucency than the rest of the tooth. Demarcated opacities of enamel have sharp boundaries where the translucency decreases and manifest a white, cream, yellow, or brown color. All these may be caused by a systemic event, such as an exanthematous fever.[61] Turner's hypoplasia is a portion of missing or diminished enamel on a permanent tooth usually from a prior infection of a nearby primary tooth. Hypoplasia may also result from antineoplastic therapy. Dental fluorosis is condition which results from ingesting excessive amounts of fluoride and leads to teeth which are spotted, yellow, brown, black or sometimes pitted. Enamel hypoplasia resulting from syphilis is frequently referred to as Hutchinson's teeth, which is considered one part of Hutchinson's triad.[62]
Destruction after development
Tooth destruction from processes other than dental caries is considered a normal physiologic process but may become severe enough to become a pathologic condition. Attrition is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from opposing teeth.[63] Attrition initially affects the enamel and, if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying dentin. Abrasion is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element.[64] If this force begins at the cementoenamel junction, then progression of tooth loss can be rapid since enamel is very thin in this region of the tooth. A common source of this type of tooth wear is excessive force when using a toothbrush. Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin.[65][66] Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the teeth to gastric acids. Another important source of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice. Abfraction is the loss of tooth structure from flexural forces. As teeth flex under pressure, the arrangement of teeth touching each other, known as occlusion, causes tension on one side of the tooth and compression on the other side of the tooth. This is believed to cause V-shaped depressions on the side under tension and C-shaped depressions on the side under compression. When tooth destruction occurs at the roots of teeth, the process is referred to as internal resorption, when caused by cells within the pulp, or external resorption, when caused by cells in the periodontal ligament.
Discoloration
Discoloration of teeth may result from bacteria stains, tobacco, tea, coffee, foods with an abundance of chlorophyll, restorative materials, and medications.[67] Stains from bacteria may cause colors varying from green to black to orange. Green stains also result from foods with chlorophyll or excessive exposure to copper or nickel. Amalgam, a common dental restorative material, may turn adjacent areas of teeth black or gray. Chlorhexidine, a mouthwash, is associated with causing yellow-brown stains near the gingiva on teeth. Systemic disorders also can cause tooth discoloration. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes porphyrins to be deposited in teeth, causing a red-brown coloration. Blue discoloration may occur with alkaptonuria and rarely with Parkinson's disease. Erythroblastosis fetalis and biliary atresia are diseases which may cause teeth to appear green from the deposition of biliverdin. Also, trauma may change a tooth to a pink, yellow, or dark gray color. Pink and red discolorations are also associated in patients with lepromatous leprosy. Some medications, such as tetracycline antibiotics, may become incorporated into the structure of a tooth, causing intrinsic staining of the teeth.
Alteration of eruption
Tooth eruption may be altered by some environmental factors. When eruption is prematurely stopped, the tooth is said to be impacted. The most common cause of tooth impaction is lack of space in the mouth for the tooth.[68] Other causes may be tumors, cysts, trauma, and thickened bone or soft tissue. Ankylosis of a tooth occurs when the tooth has already erupted into the mouth but the cementum or dentin has fused with the alveolar bone. This may cause a person to retain their primary tooth instead of having it replaced by a permanent one.
A technique for altering the natural progression of eruption is employed by orthodontists who wish to delay or speed up the eruption of certain teeth for reasons of space maintenance or otherwise preventing crowding and/or spacing. If a primary tooth is extracted prior to the root of its succeeding permanent tooth reaching ⅓ of its total growth, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be delayed. Conversely, if the roots of the permanent tooth are more than ⅔ complete, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be accelerated. Between ⅓ and ⅔, it is unknown exactly what will occur to the speed of eruption.
Developmental
Abnormality in number
Anodontia is the total lack of tooth development. Hyperdontia is the presence of a higher-than-normal number of teeth, where as Hypodontia is the lack of some teeth. Usually, hypodontia refers to the lack of development of one or more teeth, and oligodontia may be used to describe the absence of 6 or more teeth. Some systemic disorders which may result in hyperdontia include Apert syndrome, Cleidocranial dysostosis, Crouzon syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Gardner syndrome, and Sturge-Weber syndrome.[69] Some systemic disorders which may result in hypodontia include Crouzon syndrome, Ectodermal dysplasia, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and Gorlin syndrome.[70]
Abnormality in size
Microdontia is a condition where teeth are smaller than the usual size, and macrodontia is where teeth are larger than the usual size. Microdontia of a single tooth is more likely to occur in a maxillary lateral incisor. The second most likely tooth to have microdontia are third molars. Macrodontia of all the teeth is known to occur in pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia. It may also occur on one side of the face in cases of hemifacial hyperplasia.
Abnormality in shape
The fusion of two deciduous teeth.Gemination occurs when a developing tooth incompletely splits into the formation of two teeth. Fusion is the union of two adjacent teeth during development. Concrescence is the fusion of two separate teeth only in their cementum. Accessory cusps are additional cusps on a tooth and may manifest as a Talon cusp, Cusp of Carabelli, or Dens evaginatus. Dens invaginatus, also called Dens in dente, is a deep invagination in a tooth causing the appearance of a tooth within a tooth. Ectopic enamel is enamel found in an unusual location, such as the root of a tooth. Taurodontism is a condition where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged, and is associated with Klinefelter syndrome, Tricho-dento-osseous syndrome, Triple X syndrome, and XYY syndrome.[71] Hypercementosis is excessive formation of cementum, which may result from trauma, inflammation, acromegaly, rheumatic fever, and Paget's disease of bone.[71] A dilaceration is a bend in the root which may have been caused by trauma to the tooth during formation. Supernumerary roots is the presence of a greater number of roots on a tooth than expected.
Abnormality in structure
Amelogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which enamel does not form properly or at all.[72] Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which dentin does not form properly and is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta.[73] Dentin dysplasia is a disorder in which the roots and pulp of teeth may be affected. Regional odontodysplasia is a disorder affecting enamel, dentin, and pulp and causes the teeth to appear "ghostly" on radiographs.[74]
Non-human animals
Section through the ivory tusk of a mammothMain article: Tooth (animal)
Teeth of Great White SharkTeeth vary greatly among animals. Some animals, such as turtles and tortoises, are toothless. Others, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[75] Dog teeth are less likely than human teeth to form dental caries because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[76] Unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel and must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[77] Horse teeth include twelve premolars, twelve molars, and twelve incisors. Whale teeth have some similarities and differences from human teeth. Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human to protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. As mentioned, the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface. Whale teeth have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at its tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel.[78] The structure of horse teeth is different from human teeth as the enamel and dentin layers are intertwined.[79]
See also
Look up tooth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
teethBarodontalgia
Braces
Dental auxiliary
Dental assistant
Dental hygienist
Dental technician
Dental notation
Dental tourism
Dentistry
Dragon's teeth (mythology)
Head and neck anatomy
Language
Tooth Fairy
Tooth painting
Vocal tract
Lists
List of basic dentistry topics
List of oral health and dental topics
References
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^ AM Hunt. A description of the molar teeth and investing tissues of normal guinea pigs. J Dent Res. (1959) 38(2):216-31.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 6. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 3. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 9. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
^ Kokten G, Balcioglu H, Buyukertan M. Supernumerary Fourth and Fifth Molars: A Report of Two Cases. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 2003 November; (4)4:067-076. Page accessed February 10, 2007.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, "Histology: a Text and Atlas", 4th ed. (Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002), p. 441.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 1.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
^ a b Johnson, Clarke. "Biology of the Human Dentition," 1998. Page accessed on January 24, 2007.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 198.
^ a b c Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 448. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ a b c Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 150. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 450. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
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^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 236. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 241. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 451. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Walton, Richard E. and Mahmoud Torabinejad. Principles and Practice of Endodontics. 3rd ed. 2002. Pages 11-13. ISBN 0-7216-9160-9.
^ A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 95. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 81. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b c *University of Texas Medical Branch. "Lab Exercises: Tooth development." Page found here.
^ A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), pp. 86 and 102. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ *Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition, p. 453. 2003. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. pp. 1-3.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 3.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 5.
^ Ernst-Michael Kranich, "Anthropologie", in F. Bohnsack and E-M Kranich (eds.), Erziehungswissenschaft und Waldorfpädagogik, Reihe Pädagogik Beltz, Weinheim 1990, p. 126, citing F. Ilg and L. Ames (Gesell Institute), School Readiness, p. 236ff
^ "...the loss of the first deciduous tooth can serve as a definite indicator of a male child's readiness for reading and schoolwork", Diss. Cornell U. Silvestro, John R. 1977. “Second Dentition and School Readiness.” New York State Dental Journal 43 (March): 155—8
^ a b Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 452. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 256. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 260. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Listgarten, Max A. "Histology of the Periodontium: Principal fibers of the periodontal ligament," hosted on the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University website. Created May 8, 1999, revised 01/16/2007. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 270. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 274. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Pages 247 and 248. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 280. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ "Oral Health Topics: Plaque", hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Introduction to dental plaque, hosted on the http://www.dentistry.leeds.ac.uk Leeds Dental Institute] website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Ophardt, Charles E. "Sugar and tooth decay", hosted on the Elmhurst College website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Dental Cavities, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, page accessed August 14, 2006.
^ a b Epidemiology of Dental Disease, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed January 9, 2007.
^ Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990.
^ Healthy People: 2010. Html version hosted on Healthy People.gov website. Page accessed August 13, 2006.
^ "Dental caries", from the Disease Control Priorities Project. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
^ Touger-Decker, Riva and Cor van Loveren. Sugars and dental caries, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 2003, pages 881S–892S.
^ Hardie, J.M. (1982). The microbiology of dental caries. Dental Update, 9, 199-208.
^ Holloway, P.J. (1983). The role of sugar in the etiology of dental caries. Journal of Dentistry, 11, 189-213.
^ a b Oral Health Topics: Cleaning your teeth and gums. Hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
^ Introduction to Dental Plaque. Hosted on the Leeds Dental Institute Website, page accessed August 14, 2006.
^ Thumbs down for electric toothbrush, hosted on the BBC News website, posted January 21, 2003. Page accessed January 23, 2007.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. "Oral Histology: development, structure, and function." 5th edition, 1998, p. 223. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. "Histology: a text and atlas." 4th edition, p. 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ "Oral Health Topics: Dental Filling Options", hosted on the ADA website, page accessed May 8, 2007.
^ "Prosthodontic Procedures", hosted on the The American College of Prosthodontists website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
^ "Dental Implants", hosted on the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 50. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. "Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion," 8th edition, p. 31.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 51. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Syphilis: Complications, hosted on the Mayo Clinic website. Page accessed January 21, 2007.
^ "Loss of Tooth Structure", hosted on the American Dental Hygiene Association website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ "Abnormalities of Teeth", hosted on the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Yip, Kevin H-K., Roger J. Smales, John A. Kaidonis. "The diagnosis and control of extrinsic acid erosion of tooth substance", hosted on the Academy of General Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Gandara B.K., Truelove E.L. "Diagnosis and Management of Dental Erosion", online version hosted on the The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice website. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 1999 October; (1)1, pages 16-23. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 63. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 66. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 70. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 69. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ a b Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 85. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Amelogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ Dentinogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ Cho, Shiu-yin, Conservative Management of Regional Odontodysplasia: Case Report, hosted on the Canadian Dental Association website. Issue 72(8): pp. 735–8. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ The Permanent Canine Teeth, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed February 5, 2007.
^ Chris C. Pinney, The Illustrated Veterinary Guide for Dogs, Cats, Birds, and Exotic Pets (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1992), p. 187.
^ Caceci, Thomas. Veterinary Histology with subtitle "Digestive System: Oral Cavity" found here.
^ "Common Characteristics of Whale Teeth" here
^ Encarta article found here and Randall-Bowman, whose link can be found here
External links
An article on the use of human tooth used as a neolithic pendant
An overview of dental anatomy
"Broke a tooth? Grow it back", University of Alberta
Straight Teeth
Tooth eruption chart
Ramus of the mandible
Ramus of the mandible
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Mandibular ramus) Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (January 2007)
Bone: Ramus of the mandible
Mandible. Outer surface. Side view
Mandible. Inner surface. Side view
Latin ramus mandibulae
Gray's subject #44 173
The ramus of the mandible (perpendicular portion) is quadrilateral in shape, and has two surfaces, four borders, and two processes.Contents [hide]
1 Surfaces
2 Borders
3 Processes
4 Additional images
5 External links
[edit]
Surfaces
The lateral surface is flat and marked by oblique ridges at its lower part; it gives attachment throughout nearly the whole of its extent to the masseter.
The medial surface presents about its center the oblique mandibular foramen, for the entrance of the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve.
The margin of this opening is irregular; it presents in front a prominent ridge, surmounted by a sharp spine, the lingula mandibulae, which gives attachment to the sphenomandibular ligament; at its lower and back part is a notch from which the mylohyoid groove runs obliquely downward and forward, and lodges the mylohyoid vessels and nerve.
Behind this groove is a rough surface, for the insertion of the internal pterygoid muscle (Pterygoideus internus). The mandibular canal runs obliquely downward and forward in the ramus, and then horizontally forward in the body, where it is placed under the alveoli and communicates with them by small openings.
On arriving at the incisor teeth, it turns back to communicate with the mental foramen, giving off two small canals which run to the cavities containing the incisor teeth.
In the posterior two-thirds of the bone the canal is situated nearer the internal surface of the mandible; and in the anterior third, nearer its external surface.
It contains the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve, from which branches are distributed to the teeth.
[edit]
Borders
The lower border of the ramus is thick, straight, and continuous with the inferior border of the body of the bone. At its junction with the posterior border is the angle of the mandible, which may be either inverted or everted and is marked by rough, oblique ridges on each side, for the attachment of the Masseter laterally, and the Pterygoideus internus medially; the stylomandibular ligament is attached to the angle between these muscles. The anterior border is thin above, thicker below, and continuous with the oblique line.
The posterior border is thick, smooth, rounded, and covered by the parotid gland. The upper border is thin, and is surmounted by two processes, the coronoid in front and the condyloid behind, separated by a deep concavity, the mandibular notch.
[edit]
Processes
The coronoid process is a thin, triangular eminence, which is flattened from side to side and varies in shape and size.
The condyloid process is thicker than the coronoid, and consists of two portions: the condyle, and the constricted portion which supports it, the neck.
The mandibular notch, separating the two processes, is a deep semilunar depression, and is crossed by the masseteric vessels and nerve.
[edit]
Additional images
The skull from the front.
The Temporalis; the zygomatic arch and Masseter have been removed.
The Pterygoidei; the zygomatic arch and a portion of the ramus of the mandible have been removed.
[edit]
External links
Norman/Georgetown lesson1
Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator, at Elsevier 25420.000-1
Anatomy at PSU skel/mandible2
Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator, at Elsevier 34256.000-1
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Mandibular ramus) Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (January 2007)
Bone: Ramus of the mandible
Mandible. Outer surface. Side view
Mandible. Inner surface. Side view
Latin ramus mandibulae
Gray's subject #44 173
The ramus of the mandible (perpendicular portion) is quadrilateral in shape, and has two surfaces, four borders, and two processes.Contents [hide]
1 Surfaces
2 Borders
3 Processes
4 Additional images
5 External links
[edit]
Surfaces
The lateral surface is flat and marked by oblique ridges at its lower part; it gives attachment throughout nearly the whole of its extent to the masseter.
The medial surface presents about its center the oblique mandibular foramen, for the entrance of the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve.
The margin of this opening is irregular; it presents in front a prominent ridge, surmounted by a sharp spine, the lingula mandibulae, which gives attachment to the sphenomandibular ligament; at its lower and back part is a notch from which the mylohyoid groove runs obliquely downward and forward, and lodges the mylohyoid vessels and nerve.
Behind this groove is a rough surface, for the insertion of the internal pterygoid muscle (Pterygoideus internus). The mandibular canal runs obliquely downward and forward in the ramus, and then horizontally forward in the body, where it is placed under the alveoli and communicates with them by small openings.
On arriving at the incisor teeth, it turns back to communicate with the mental foramen, giving off two small canals which run to the cavities containing the incisor teeth.
In the posterior two-thirds of the bone the canal is situated nearer the internal surface of the mandible; and in the anterior third, nearer its external surface.
It contains the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve, from which branches are distributed to the teeth.
[edit]
Borders
The lower border of the ramus is thick, straight, and continuous with the inferior border of the body of the bone. At its junction with the posterior border is the angle of the mandible, which may be either inverted or everted and is marked by rough, oblique ridges on each side, for the attachment of the Masseter laterally, and the Pterygoideus internus medially; the stylomandibular ligament is attached to the angle between these muscles. The anterior border is thin above, thicker below, and continuous with the oblique line.
The posterior border is thick, smooth, rounded, and covered by the parotid gland. The upper border is thin, and is surmounted by two processes, the coronoid in front and the condyloid behind, separated by a deep concavity, the mandibular notch.
[edit]
Processes
The coronoid process is a thin, triangular eminence, which is flattened from side to side and varies in shape and size.
The condyloid process is thicker than the coronoid, and consists of two portions: the condyle, and the constricted portion which supports it, the neck.
The mandibular notch, separating the two processes, is a deep semilunar depression, and is crossed by the masseteric vessels and nerve.
[edit]
Additional images
The skull from the front.
The Temporalis; the zygomatic arch and Masseter have been removed.
The Pterygoidei; the zygomatic arch and a portion of the ramus of the mandible have been removed.
[edit]
External links
Norman/Georgetown lesson1
Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator, at Elsevier 25420.000-1
Anatomy at PSU skel/mandible2
Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator, at Elsevier 34256.000-1
Salivary gland
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007)
Salivary gland
Salivary glands: #1 is Parotid gland, #2 is Submandibular gland, #3 is Sublingual gland
Salivary+Glands
Latin glandulae salivariae
The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands that produce saliva. They also secrete amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into glucose. In other organisms such as insects, salivary glands are often used to produce biologically important proteins like silk or glues, and fly salivary glands contain polytene chromosomes that have been useful in genetic research.Contents [hide]
1 Histology
1.1 Ducts
2 Anatomy
2.1 Parotid Glands
2.2 Submandibular Glands
2.3 Sublingual Gland
2.4 Minor Salivary Glands
2.4.1 Von Ebner's Glands
3 Innervation
4 Role in disease
5 Diagnostic investigation
6 References
7 External links
[edit]
Histology
Parotid gland (green) in relation to the skull.
The glands are enclosed in a capsule of connective tissue and internally divided into lobules. Blood vessels and nerves enter the glands at the hilum and gradually branch out into the lobules.
[edit]
Ducts
In the duct system, the lumens formed by intercalated ducts, which in turn join to form striated ducts. These drain into ducts situated between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar ducts or excretory ducts).
All of the human salivary glands terminate in the mouth, where the saliva proceeds to aid in digestion. The saliva that salivary glands release is quickly inactivated in the stomach by the acid that is present there.
[edit]
Anatomy
The salivary glands are situated at the entrance to the gastrointestinal system to help begin the process of digestion.
[edit]
Parotid Glands
Main article: Parotid gland
The parotid glands are a pair of glands located in the subcutaneous tissues of the face overlying the mandibular ramus and anterior and inferior to the external ear. The secretion produced by the parotid glands is serous in nature, and enters the oral cavity through the Stensen's duct after passing through the intercalated ducts which are prominent in the gland. Despite being the largest pair of glands, only approximately 25% of saliva is produced by the glands. another type of salivary gland is the sublingual salivary gland.
[edit]
Submandibular Glands
Main article: Submandibular gland
The submandibular glands are a pair of glands located beneath the floor of the mouth, superior to the digastric muscles. The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous and mucous and enters the oral cavity via Wharton's ducts. Approximately 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by the submandibular glands, even though they are much smaller than the parotid glands.
[edit]
Sublingual Gland
Main article: Sublingual gland
The sublingual glands are a pair of glands located beneath the floor of the mouth anterior to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature, however it is categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands do not have striated ducts, and exit from 8-20 excretory ducts. Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity come from these glands.
[edit]
Minor Salivary Glands
There are over 600 minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity within the lamina propria of the oral mucosa. They are 1-2mm in diameter and unlike the other glands, they are not encapsulated by connective tissue only surrounded by it. The gland is usually a number of acini connected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a common excretory duct with another gland, or may have its own excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature (except for Von Ebner's glands) and have many functions such as coating the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are usually associated with minor salivary glands.[1]
[edit]
Von Ebner's Glands
Main article: Von Ebner's glands
Von Ebner's glands are glands found in circumvallate papillae of the tongue. They secrete a serous fluid that begin lipid hydrolysis. They are an essential component of taste.
[edit]
Innervation
Salivary glands are innervated, either directly or indirectly, by the parasympathetic and sympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system.
Parasympathetic innervation to the salivary glands is carried via cranial nerves. The parotid gland receives its parasympathetic input from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via the otic ganglion, while the submandibular and sublingual glands receive their parasympathetic input from the facial nerve (CN VII) via the submandibular ganglion.
Direct sympathetic innervation of the salivary glands takes place via preganglionic nerves in the thoracic segments T1-T3 which synapse in the superior cervical ganglion with postganglionic neurons that release norepinephrine, which is then received by β-adrenergic receptors on the acinar and ductal cells of the salivary glands, leading to an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels and the corresponding increase of saliva secretion. Note that in this regard both parasympathetic and sympathetic stimuli result in an increase in salivary gland secretions.[2] The sympathetic nervous system also affects salivary gland secretions indirectly by innervating the blood vessels that supply the glands.
[edit]
Role in disease
See mumps (parotiditis epidemica), Sjögren's syndrome, Mucocele, and Salivary gland neoplasm.
Salivary duct calculus may cause blockage of the ducts, causing pain and swelling of the gland.
Tumors of the salivary glands may occur.
[edit]
Diagnostic investigation
A sialogram is a radiocontrast study of a salivary duct.
[edit]
References
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 3. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Costanzo, L. (2006). Physiology, 3rd ed.. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN 10:1-4160-2320-8.
[edit]
External links
Salivary Gland Disorders at intelihealth.com
Illustration at merck.com
Illustration at .washington.edu
Photo at mgccc.cc.ms.us
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007)
Salivary gland
Salivary glands: #1 is Parotid gland, #2 is Submandibular gland, #3 is Sublingual gland
Salivary+Glands
Latin glandulae salivariae
The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands that produce saliva. They also secrete amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into glucose. In other organisms such as insects, salivary glands are often used to produce biologically important proteins like silk or glues, and fly salivary glands contain polytene chromosomes that have been useful in genetic research.Contents [hide]
1 Histology
1.1 Ducts
2 Anatomy
2.1 Parotid Glands
2.2 Submandibular Glands
2.3 Sublingual Gland
2.4 Minor Salivary Glands
2.4.1 Von Ebner's Glands
3 Innervation
4 Role in disease
5 Diagnostic investigation
6 References
7 External links
[edit]
Histology
Parotid gland (green) in relation to the skull.
The glands are enclosed in a capsule of connective tissue and internally divided into lobules. Blood vessels and nerves enter the glands at the hilum and gradually branch out into the lobules.
[edit]
Ducts
In the duct system, the lumens formed by intercalated ducts, which in turn join to form striated ducts. These drain into ducts situated between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar ducts or excretory ducts).
All of the human salivary glands terminate in the mouth, where the saliva proceeds to aid in digestion. The saliva that salivary glands release is quickly inactivated in the stomach by the acid that is present there.
[edit]
Anatomy
The salivary glands are situated at the entrance to the gastrointestinal system to help begin the process of digestion.
[edit]
Parotid Glands
Main article: Parotid gland
The parotid glands are a pair of glands located in the subcutaneous tissues of the face overlying the mandibular ramus and anterior and inferior to the external ear. The secretion produced by the parotid glands is serous in nature, and enters the oral cavity through the Stensen's duct after passing through the intercalated ducts which are prominent in the gland. Despite being the largest pair of glands, only approximately 25% of saliva is produced by the glands. another type of salivary gland is the sublingual salivary gland.
[edit]
Submandibular Glands
Main article: Submandibular gland
The submandibular glands are a pair of glands located beneath the floor of the mouth, superior to the digastric muscles. The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous and mucous and enters the oral cavity via Wharton's ducts. Approximately 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by the submandibular glands, even though they are much smaller than the parotid glands.
[edit]
Sublingual Gland
Main article: Sublingual gland
The sublingual glands are a pair of glands located beneath the floor of the mouth anterior to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature, however it is categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands do not have striated ducts, and exit from 8-20 excretory ducts. Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity come from these glands.
[edit]
Minor Salivary Glands
There are over 600 minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity within the lamina propria of the oral mucosa. They are 1-2mm in diameter and unlike the other glands, they are not encapsulated by connective tissue only surrounded by it. The gland is usually a number of acini connected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a common excretory duct with another gland, or may have its own excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature (except for Von Ebner's glands) and have many functions such as coating the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are usually associated with minor salivary glands.[1]
[edit]
Von Ebner's Glands
Main article: Von Ebner's glands
Von Ebner's glands are glands found in circumvallate papillae of the tongue. They secrete a serous fluid that begin lipid hydrolysis. They are an essential component of taste.
[edit]
Innervation
Salivary glands are innervated, either directly or indirectly, by the parasympathetic and sympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system.
Parasympathetic innervation to the salivary glands is carried via cranial nerves. The parotid gland receives its parasympathetic input from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via the otic ganglion, while the submandibular and sublingual glands receive their parasympathetic input from the facial nerve (CN VII) via the submandibular ganglion.
Direct sympathetic innervation of the salivary glands takes place via preganglionic nerves in the thoracic segments T1-T3 which synapse in the superior cervical ganglion with postganglionic neurons that release norepinephrine, which is then received by β-adrenergic receptors on the acinar and ductal cells of the salivary glands, leading to an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels and the corresponding increase of saliva secretion. Note that in this regard both parasympathetic and sympathetic stimuli result in an increase in salivary gland secretions.[2] The sympathetic nervous system also affects salivary gland secretions indirectly by innervating the blood vessels that supply the glands.
[edit]
Role in disease
See mumps (parotiditis epidemica), Sjögren's syndrome, Mucocele, and Salivary gland neoplasm.
Salivary duct calculus may cause blockage of the ducts, causing pain and swelling of the gland.
Tumors of the salivary glands may occur.
[edit]
Diagnostic investigation
A sialogram is a radiocontrast study of a salivary duct.
[edit]
References
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 3. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Costanzo, L. (2006). Physiology, 3rd ed.. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN 10:1-4160-2320-8.
[edit]
External links
Salivary Gland Disorders at intelihealth.com
Illustration at merck.com
Illustration at .washington.edu
Photo at mgccc.cc.ms.us
Saliva
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the band, see Saliva (band); for the village in Azerbaijan, see Səliva.
Not to be confused with Salvia.
Look up saliva in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Saliva is the watery and usually frothy substance produced in the mouths of humans and most other animals. Saliva is produced in and secreted from the salivary glands. Human saliva is composed mostly of water, but also includes electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds, and various enzymes. [1] As part of the initial process of food digestion, the enzymes in the saliva break down some of the starch and fat in the food at the molecular level. Saliva also breaks down food caught in the teeth, protecting them from bacteria that cause decay. Furthermore, saliva lubricates and protects the teeth, the tongue, and the tender tissues inside the mouth. Saliva also plays an important role in tasting food by trapping thiols produced from odourless food compounds by anaerobic bacteria living in the mouth. [2]
Various species have evolved special uses for saliva that go beyond predigestion. Some swifts use their gummy saliva to build their nests. Some Aerodramus swiftlet nests are made only from saliva and used to make bird's nest soup.[3] Cobras, vipers, and certain other members of the venom clade hunt with venomous saliva injected by fangs. Some arthropods, such as spiders and caterpillars, create thread from salivary glands.
Taking a saliva sample for testingContents [hide]
1 Functions
1.1 Digestion
1.2 Disinfectants
1.3 Cleaning
2 Stimulation
3 Daily salivary output
4 Contents
5 References
[edit]
Functions
[edit]
Digestion
The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food, and helping to create a food bolus, so it can be swallowed easily. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that breaks some starches down into maltose and dextrin. Thus, digestion of food occurs within the mouth, even before food reaches the stomach. Salivary glands also secrete enzymes (salivary lipase) to start fat digestion.[4]
[edit]
Disinfectants
A common belief is that saliva contained in the mouth has natural disinfectants, which leads people to believe it is beneficial to "lick their wounds". Researchers at the University of Florida at Gainesville have discovered a protein called nerve growth factor (NGF) in the saliva of mice. Wounds doused with NGF healed twice as fast as untreated and unlicked wounds; therefore, saliva can help to heal wounds in some species. NGF has not been found in human saliva; however, researchers find human saliva contains such antibacterial agents as secretory IgA, lactoferrin, and lactoperoxidase. It has not been shown that human licking of wounds disinfects them, but licking is likely to help clean the wound by removing larger contaminants such as dirt and may help to directly remove infective bodies by brushing them away. Therefore, licking would be a way of wiping off pathogens, useful if clean water is not available to the animal or person.
The mouth of animals is the habitat of many bacteria, some pathogenic. Some diseases, such as herpes, can be transmitted through the mouth. Animal (including human) bites are routinely treated with systemic antibiotics because of the risk of septicemia.
Recent research suggests that the saliva of birds is a better indicator of avian influenza than are faecal samples. [5]
[edit]
Cleaning
Saliva is an effective cleaning agent used in art conservation. Cotton swabs coated with saliva are rolled across a paintings surface to delicately remove thin layers of dirt that may accumulate.[6]
[edit]
Stimulation
The production of saliva is stimulated both by the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic.[7]
The saliva stimulated by sympathetic innervation is thicker, and saliva stimulated parasympathetically is more watery.
Parasympathetic stimulation leads to acetylcholine (ACh) release onto the salivary acinar cells. ACh binds to muscarinic receptors and causes an increased intracellular calcium ion concentration (through the IP3/DAG second messenger system). Increased calcium causes vesicles within the cells to fuse with the apical cell membrane leading to secretion formation. ACh also causes the salivary gland to release kallikrein, an enzyme that converts kininogen to lysyl-bradykinin. Lysyl-bradykinin acts upons blood vessels and capillaries of the salivary gland to generate vasodilation and increased capillary permeability respectively. The resulting increased blood flow to the acinar allows production of more saliva. Lastly, both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous stimulation can lead to myoepitheilium contraction which causes the expulsion of secretions from the secretory acinus into the ducts and eventually to the oral cavity.
[edit]
Daily salivary output
There is much debate about the amount of saliva that is produced in a healthy person per day. The estimates range from 0.75 liters per day to 1.5 liters per day.This suggests that the amount produced varies from person to person. It is generally accepted though that while sleeping the amount usually drops to almost zero.
[edit]
Contents
Produced in salivary glands, human saliva is 98% water, but it contains many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various enzymes. [8]
It is a fluid containing:
Water
Electrolytes:
2-21 mmol/L sodium (lower than blood plasma)
10-36 mmol/L potassium (higher than plasma)
1.2-2.8 mmol/L calcium
0.08-0.5 mmol/L magnesium
5-40 mmol/L chloride (lower than plasma)
25 mmol/L bicarbonate (higher than plasma)
1.4-39 mmol/L phosphate
Mucus. Mucus in saliva mainly consists of mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins;
Antibacterial compounds (thiocyanate, hydrogen peroxide, and secretory immunoglobulin A)
Various enzymes. There are three major enzymes found in saliva.
α-amylase (EC3.2.1.1). Amylase starts the digestion of starch and lipase fat before the food is even swallowed. It has a pH optima of 7.4.
lysozyme (EC3.2.1.17). Lysozyme acts to cause lysis in bacteria.
lingual lipase (EC3.1.1.3). Lingual lipase has a pH optimum ~4.0 so it is not activated until entering the acidic environment of the stomach.
Minor enzymes include salivary acid phosphatases A+B (EC3.1.3.2), N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanine amidase (EC3.5.1.28), NAD(P)H dehydrogenase-quinone (EC1.6.99.2), salivary lactoperoxidase (EC1.11.1.7), superoxide dismutase (EC1.15.1.1), glutathione transferase (EC2.5.1.18), class 3 aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC1.2.1.3), glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (EC5.3.1.9), and tissue kallikrein (EC3.4.21.35).
Cells: Possibly as much as 8 million human and 500 million bacterial cells per mL. The presence of bacterial products (small organic acids, amines, and thiols) causes saliva to sometimes exhibit foul odor.
Opiorphin, a newly researched pain-killing substance found in human saliva.
Different reagents used to determine the content of saliva \1. Molisch test gives a positive result of purple color that is costituent to the presence of carbohydrates
[edit]
References
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_6
^ Christian Starkenmann, Benedicte Le Calvé, Yvan Niclass, Isabelle Cayeux, Sabine Beccucci, and Myriam Troccaz. Olfactory Perception of Cysteine−S-Conjugates from Fruits and Vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2008; 56 (20): 9575-9580 DOI: 10.1021/jf801873h
^ Marcone, M. F. (2005). "Characterization of the edible bird's nest the Caviar of the East." Food Research International 38:1125–1134. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2005.02.008 Abstract retrieved 12 Nov 2007
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
^ "Saliva swabs for bird flu virus more effective than faecal samples" German Press Agency December 11, 2006 Retrieved 13 November 2007
^ "Techniques for Cleaning Acrylic". Golden Artist Colors. Retrieved on 2008-09-12.
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_7
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_6
For the band, see Saliva (band); for the village in Azerbaijan, see Səliva.
Not to be confused with Salvia.
Look up saliva in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Saliva is the watery and usually frothy substance produced in the mouths of humans and most other animals. Saliva is produced in and secreted from the salivary glands. Human saliva is composed mostly of water, but also includes electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds, and various enzymes. [1] As part of the initial process of food digestion, the enzymes in the saliva break down some of the starch and fat in the food at the molecular level. Saliva also breaks down food caught in the teeth, protecting them from bacteria that cause decay. Furthermore, saliva lubricates and protects the teeth, the tongue, and the tender tissues inside the mouth. Saliva also plays an important role in tasting food by trapping thiols produced from odourless food compounds by anaerobic bacteria living in the mouth. [2]
Various species have evolved special uses for saliva that go beyond predigestion. Some swifts use their gummy saliva to build their nests. Some Aerodramus swiftlet nests are made only from saliva and used to make bird's nest soup.[3] Cobras, vipers, and certain other members of the venom clade hunt with venomous saliva injected by fangs. Some arthropods, such as spiders and caterpillars, create thread from salivary glands.
Taking a saliva sample for testingContents [hide]
1 Functions
1.1 Digestion
1.2 Disinfectants
1.3 Cleaning
2 Stimulation
3 Daily salivary output
4 Contents
5 References
[edit]
Functions
[edit]
Digestion
The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food, and helping to create a food bolus, so it can be swallowed easily. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that breaks some starches down into maltose and dextrin. Thus, digestion of food occurs within the mouth, even before food reaches the stomach. Salivary glands also secrete enzymes (salivary lipase) to start fat digestion.[4]
[edit]
Disinfectants
A common belief is that saliva contained in the mouth has natural disinfectants, which leads people to believe it is beneficial to "lick their wounds". Researchers at the University of Florida at Gainesville have discovered a protein called nerve growth factor (NGF) in the saliva of mice. Wounds doused with NGF healed twice as fast as untreated and unlicked wounds; therefore, saliva can help to heal wounds in some species. NGF has not been found in human saliva; however, researchers find human saliva contains such antibacterial agents as secretory IgA, lactoferrin, and lactoperoxidase. It has not been shown that human licking of wounds disinfects them, but licking is likely to help clean the wound by removing larger contaminants such as dirt and may help to directly remove infective bodies by brushing them away. Therefore, licking would be a way of wiping off pathogens, useful if clean water is not available to the animal or person.
The mouth of animals is the habitat of many bacteria, some pathogenic. Some diseases, such as herpes, can be transmitted through the mouth. Animal (including human) bites are routinely treated with systemic antibiotics because of the risk of septicemia.
Recent research suggests that the saliva of birds is a better indicator of avian influenza than are faecal samples. [5]
[edit]
Cleaning
Saliva is an effective cleaning agent used in art conservation. Cotton swabs coated with saliva are rolled across a paintings surface to delicately remove thin layers of dirt that may accumulate.[6]
[edit]
Stimulation
The production of saliva is stimulated both by the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic.[7]
The saliva stimulated by sympathetic innervation is thicker, and saliva stimulated parasympathetically is more watery.
Parasympathetic stimulation leads to acetylcholine (ACh) release onto the salivary acinar cells. ACh binds to muscarinic receptors and causes an increased intracellular calcium ion concentration (through the IP3/DAG second messenger system). Increased calcium causes vesicles within the cells to fuse with the apical cell membrane leading to secretion formation. ACh also causes the salivary gland to release kallikrein, an enzyme that converts kininogen to lysyl-bradykinin. Lysyl-bradykinin acts upons blood vessels and capillaries of the salivary gland to generate vasodilation and increased capillary permeability respectively. The resulting increased blood flow to the acinar allows production of more saliva. Lastly, both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous stimulation can lead to myoepitheilium contraction which causes the expulsion of secretions from the secretory acinus into the ducts and eventually to the oral cavity.
[edit]
Daily salivary output
There is much debate about the amount of saliva that is produced in a healthy person per day. The estimates range from 0.75 liters per day to 1.5 liters per day.This suggests that the amount produced varies from person to person. It is generally accepted though that while sleeping the amount usually drops to almost zero.
[edit]
Contents
Produced in salivary glands, human saliva is 98% water, but it contains many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various enzymes. [8]
It is a fluid containing:
Water
Electrolytes:
2-21 mmol/L sodium (lower than blood plasma)
10-36 mmol/L potassium (higher than plasma)
1.2-2.8 mmol/L calcium
0.08-0.5 mmol/L magnesium
5-40 mmol/L chloride (lower than plasma)
25 mmol/L bicarbonate (higher than plasma)
1.4-39 mmol/L phosphate
Mucus. Mucus in saliva mainly consists of mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins;
Antibacterial compounds (thiocyanate, hydrogen peroxide, and secretory immunoglobulin A)
Various enzymes. There are three major enzymes found in saliva.
α-amylase (EC3.2.1.1). Amylase starts the digestion of starch and lipase fat before the food is even swallowed. It has a pH optima of 7.4.
lysozyme (EC3.2.1.17). Lysozyme acts to cause lysis in bacteria.
lingual lipase (EC3.1.1.3). Lingual lipase has a pH optimum ~4.0 so it is not activated until entering the acidic environment of the stomach.
Minor enzymes include salivary acid phosphatases A+B (EC3.1.3.2), N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanine amidase (EC3.5.1.28), NAD(P)H dehydrogenase-quinone (EC1.6.99.2), salivary lactoperoxidase (EC1.11.1.7), superoxide dismutase (EC1.15.1.1), glutathione transferase (EC2.5.1.18), class 3 aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC1.2.1.3), glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (EC5.3.1.9), and tissue kallikrein (EC3.4.21.35).
Cells: Possibly as much as 8 million human and 500 million bacterial cells per mL. The presence of bacterial products (small organic acids, amines, and thiols) causes saliva to sometimes exhibit foul odor.
Opiorphin, a newly researched pain-killing substance found in human saliva.
Different reagents used to determine the content of saliva \1. Molisch test gives a positive result of purple color that is costituent to the presence of carbohydrates
[edit]
References
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_6
^ Christian Starkenmann, Benedicte Le Calvé, Yvan Niclass, Isabelle Cayeux, Sabine Beccucci, and Myriam Troccaz. Olfactory Perception of Cysteine−S-Conjugates from Fruits and Vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2008; 56 (20): 9575-9580 DOI: 10.1021/jf801873h
^ Marcone, M. F. (2005). "Characterization of the edible bird's nest the Caviar of the East." Food Research International 38:1125–1134. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2005.02.008 Abstract retrieved 12 Nov 2007
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
^ "Saliva swabs for bird flu virus more effective than faecal samples" German Press Agency December 11, 2006 Retrieved 13 November 2007
^ "Techniques for Cleaning Acrylic". Golden Artist Colors. Retrieved on 2008-09-12.
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_7
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_6
Mouth
Mouth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the anatomical structure. For other uses, see Mouth (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)
Mouth
Head and neck.
A closed female human mouth
Latin cavitas oris
MeSH Oral+cavity
The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up the solid food particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva.[1] It is lined with a mucous membrane (as opposed to the exterior of the body, which is lined with skin. The lips mark the transition from mucous membrane to skin.Contents [hide]
1 In humans
1.1 Mouth cavity
1.2 Function
1.3 Cultural aspects
1.4 Development
2 In animals
3 See also
4 Additional images
5 References
6 External links
[edit]
In humans
[edit]
Mouth cavity
An image of the inside of the top and bottom of the mouth showing the location of the teeth.
The first space of the mouth is the mouth cavity, bounded laterally and in front by the alveolar arches (containing the teeth), and posteriorily by the isthmus of the fauces. The oral cavity is also known as the mouth which it swallows food and drinks and goes down to the person's stomach.
[edit]
Function
The mouth plays an important role in speech (it is part of the vocal apparatus), facial expression, kissing, eating, drinking (especially with a straw) & breathing.
Infants are born with a sucking reflex, by which they instinctively know to suck for nourishment using their lips and jaw.
[edit]
Cultural aspects
According to western etiquette, the mouth is kept closed, especially when chewing.
Lips can be adorned with lipstick or lip gloss, although in most cultures this is typically only practised by females.
Piercings have been made popular by the younger generations. Lip, tongue, and the 'Monroe' (Monroe piercing is a stud piercing placed on one's face in the same area as Marilyn Monroe's well known and prominent birthmark was) are piercings seen in many varieties. Piercings of any sort besides two subtle earrings are seen as rebellious to the norm in many western cultures.
[edit]
Development
The philtrum is the vertical groove in the upper lip, formed where the nasomedial and maxillary processes meet during embryo development. When these processes fail to fuse fully, a hare lip and/or cleft palate can result.
The nasolabial folds are the deep creases of tissue that extend from the nose to the sides of the mouth. One of the first signs of age on the human face is the increase in prominence of the nasolabial folds.
[edit]
In animals
An alligator's mouth.
Some animal phyla, including vertebrates, have a complete digestive system, with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a criterion used to classify animals into protostome and deuterostome. The first space of the mouth is the mouth cavity, bounded laterally and in front by the alveolar arches (containing the teeth), and posteriorly by the isthmus of the fauces.[2]
[edit]
See also
Head and neck anatomy
Mouth breathing
List of oral health and dental topics
List of basic dentistry topics
[edit]
Additional images
Sagittal section of nose mouth, pharynx, and larynx.
A male human mouth.
[edit]
References
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the anatomical structure. For other uses, see Mouth (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)
Mouth
Head and neck.
A closed female human mouth
Latin cavitas oris
MeSH Oral+cavity
The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up the solid food particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva.[1] It is lined with a mucous membrane (as opposed to the exterior of the body, which is lined with skin. The lips mark the transition from mucous membrane to skin.Contents [hide]
1 In humans
1.1 Mouth cavity
1.2 Function
1.3 Cultural aspects
1.4 Development
2 In animals
3 See also
4 Additional images
5 References
6 External links
[edit]
In humans
[edit]
Mouth cavity
An image of the inside of the top and bottom of the mouth showing the location of the teeth.
The first space of the mouth is the mouth cavity, bounded laterally and in front by the alveolar arches (containing the teeth), and posteriorily by the isthmus of the fauces. The oral cavity is also known as the mouth which it swallows food and drinks and goes down to the person's stomach.
[edit]
Function
The mouth plays an important role in speech (it is part of the vocal apparatus), facial expression, kissing, eating, drinking (especially with a straw) & breathing.
Infants are born with a sucking reflex, by which they instinctively know to suck for nourishment using their lips and jaw.
[edit]
Cultural aspects
According to western etiquette, the mouth is kept closed, especially when chewing.
Lips can be adorned with lipstick or lip gloss, although in most cultures this is typically only practised by females.
Piercings have been made popular by the younger generations. Lip, tongue, and the 'Monroe' (Monroe piercing is a stud piercing placed on one's face in the same area as Marilyn Monroe's well known and prominent birthmark was) are piercings seen in many varieties. Piercings of any sort besides two subtle earrings are seen as rebellious to the norm in many western cultures.
[edit]
Development
The philtrum is the vertical groove in the upper lip, formed where the nasomedial and maxillary processes meet during embryo development. When these processes fail to fuse fully, a hare lip and/or cleft palate can result.
The nasolabial folds are the deep creases of tissue that extend from the nose to the sides of the mouth. One of the first signs of age on the human face is the increase in prominence of the nasolabial folds.
[edit]
In animals
An alligator's mouth.
Some animal phyla, including vertebrates, have a complete digestive system, with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a criterion used to classify animals into protostome and deuterostome. The first space of the mouth is the mouth cavity, bounded laterally and in front by the alveolar arches (containing the teeth), and posteriorly by the isthmus of the fauces.[2]
[edit]
See also
Head and neck anatomy
Mouth breathing
List of oral health and dental topics
List of basic dentistry topics
[edit]
Additional images
Sagittal section of nose mouth, pharynx, and larynx.
A male human mouth.
[edit]
References
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
Dentistry
Dentistry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article requires authentication or verification by an expert.
Please assist in recruiting an expert or improve this article yourself. See the talk page for details. (December 2007)
This article is about the dental profession. For tooth care see oral hygiene dental surgery.
A Dentist and Dental Assistant perform surgery on a patient.
Dentistry is the "evaluation, diagnosis, prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical, surgical or related procedures) of diseases, disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and/or the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body". Dentistry is necessary for complete oral health.[1] Those in the practice of dentistry are known as dentists. Other people aiding in oral health service include dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists.Contents [hide]
1 General practices
1.1 Surgery
1.2 Prevention
2 Education and licensing
3 Specialities
4 History
5 Geography
6 Organizations
7 See also
7.1 Lists
8 References
9 External links
[edit]
General practices
[edit]
Surgery
Dentistry usually encompasses a number of practices related to the oral cavity. The most common treatments involve the dental surgery on the teeth as a treatment for dental caries. Decayed teeth can be filled with dental amalgam, dental composite, dental porcelain and precious or non-precious metals. Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a more specialized form of dental surgery. Dentists can prescribe medication, x-rays, and devices for home or in-office use. Many oral diseases (such as bilateral odontogenic keratocysts) and abnormalities (such as several unerupted teeth) can indicate systemic, neural, or other diseases. Most general practitioners of dentistry perform restorative, prosthetic, routine endodontic therapy, routine periodontal therapy, and simple exodontia, as well as performing examinations. Many general practitioners are comfortable treating complex cases, as well as placing implants and surgically extracting third molars (wisdom teeth). All dentists must achieve a certain degree of skill in various disciplines in order to graduate from dental school and become an accredited dentist.
[edit]
Prevention
Dentists also encourage prevention of dental caries through proper hygiene (tooth brushing and flossing), fluoride, and tooth polishing. Recognized but less conventional preventive agents include xylitol, which is bacteriostatic,[2] casein derivatives,[3] and proprietary products such as Cavistat BasicMints.[4]
[edit]
Education and licensing
The Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, the first dental school in the world, opened in Baltimore, Maryland in 1840, and in 1867, Harvard Dental School became the second dental school affiliated with a university.
Studies showed that dentists graduated from different countries[5], or even from different dental schools in one country[6], may have different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend more often for the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) than dentists graduated from Latin-American or Eastern European dental schools.[7]
In England, the 1878 British Dentists Act and 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners.[8][9] The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practicing dentistry.[10] The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practicing illegally.[8] A dentist is a healthcare professional qualified to practice dentistry after graduating with a degree of either Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD), Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent), Bachelor of Dental Science (BDSc), or Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Chirurgiae (BDS) or (BChD) or equivalent. In most western countries, to become a qualified dentist one must usually complete at least 4 years of postgraduate study[citation needed]. Dentists usually complete between 5–8 years of post secondary education before practicing. Though not mandatory, many dentists choose to complete an internship or residency focusing on specific aspects of dental care after they have received their dental degree.
[edit]
Specialities
In addition to general dentistry, there are about 9 recognized dental specialties in the US, Canada, and Australia. To become a specialist requires one to train in a residency or advanced graduate training program. Once residency is completed, the doctor is granted a certificate of specialty training. Many specialty programs have optional or required advanced degrees such as (MD/MBBS specific to Maxillofacial Surgery), MS, or PhD.
Dental public health (study of dental epidemiology and social health policies),
Endodontics (root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp),
Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology (study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases),
Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology (study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases),
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (extractions, implants, and facial surgery),
Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopaedics (straightening of teeth and modification of midface and mandibular growth),
Periodontics (study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical), and placement and maintenance of dental implants),
Pediatric Dentistry (i.e. dentistry for children, formerly known as "pedodontics"),
Prosthodontics (dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. Some prosthodontists further their training in "oral and maxillofacial prosthodontics"--a discipline concerned with the replacement of missing facial structures--such as ears, eyes, nose, etc.)
Specialists in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. "Board Eligible") and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, endodontist, pediatric dentist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. "Board Certified"), (Australia/NZ: "FRACDS"), or (Canada: "FRCD(C)") registry requirements.
A tenth specialty, dental anesthesiology, the study of how to relieve pain through advanced use of local and general anesthesia techniques is not yet considered to be one of the recognized dental specialties. However, CODA is in the process of accrediting all dental anesthesiology programs.[citation needed]
Two other post-graduate formal advanced education programs: General Practice Residency (advanced clinical and didactic training with intense hospital experience) and Advanced Education in General Dentistry (advanced training in clinical dentistry) recognized by the ADA do not lead to specialization.
The American Board of Dental Sleep Medicine (ABDSM) provides board-certification examinations annually for qualified dentists. These dentists collaborate with sleep physicians at accredited sleep centers and can provide oral appliance therapy and upper airway surgery to treat sleep-related breathing disorders.[1] While Diplomate status granted by the ABDSM is not one of the recognized dental specialties, it is recognized by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM).
Special category: Oral Biology - Research in Dental and Craniofacial Biology
Other dental education exists where no post-graduate formal university training is required: cosmetic dentistry, dental implant, temporo-mandibular joint therapy. These usually require the attendance of one or more continuing education courses that typically last for one to several days. There are restrictions on allowing these dentists to call themselves specialists in these fields. The specialist titles are registrable titles and controlled by the local dental licensing bodies.
Forensic odontology consists of the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity.
Geriatric dentistry or geriodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal ageing and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.
Veterinary dentistry, a speciality of veterinary medicine, is the field of dentistry applied to the care of animals[11][12].
Aviation dentistry, a subcategory of (military) aviation medicine deals with dental topics related to aircrews, e.g., dental barotrauma[13] and barodontalgia[14][15]. In addition, the aircrew population is a unique high-risk group to several diseases and harmful conditions due to irregular work shifts with irregular self-oral care habits and irregular meals (usually carbonated drinks and high energy snacks) and work-related stress.[16]
[edit]
History
Farmer at the dentist, Johann Liss, c. 1616-17.
Evidence of ancient dentistry has recently been found in a Neolithic graveyard in the Indus River basin of Pakistan. Teeth dating from around 7000 to 5500 BC show evidence of holes from dental drills. The teeth were found in people of the Indus Valley Civilization.[17][18][19] A Sumerian text from 5000 BC describes a "tooth worm" as the cause of dental caries.[20] Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China. The legend of the worm is also found in the writings of Homer, and as late as the 1300s AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay.[21]
The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, includes the treatment of several dental ailments.[22][23] In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment.[24] Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics and surgery.[25]
Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Aristotle wrote about dentistry, including the eruption pattern of teeth, treating decayed teeth and gum disease, extracting teeth with forceps, and using wires to stabilize loose teeth and fractured jaws.[26] The first use of dental appliances or bridges comes from the Etruscans from as early as 700 BC.[27] Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents.[28][29]
Medieval dentist extracting a tooth. London; c. 1360-75.
Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth, which not only resulted in the alleviation of pain, but often cured a variety of ailments linked to chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac invented the dental pelican[30] (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key[30] which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 20th century.[citation needed]
The first book focused solely on dentistry was the "Artzney Buchlein" in 1530,[31] and the first dental textbook written in English was called "Operator for the Teeth" by Charles Allen in 1685.[9] It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. It is said that the 17th century French physician Pierre Fauchard started dentistry science as we know it today, and he has been named "the father of modern dentistry".[32] Among many of his developments were the extensive use of dental prosthesis, the introduction of dental fillings as a treatment for dental caries and the statement that sugar derivate acids such as tartaric acid are responsible for dental decay.
Army Dental Surgery. Display at Army Medical Services Museum. Typical of dental surgeries, civil and military, during the 1940s and 1950s. Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (November 2008)
A modern Dentist's chair in a Public Hospital Na Wa, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand.
[edit]
Geography
Main article: Dentistry throughout the world
[edit]
Organizations
Main article: List of dental organizations
[edit]
See also Dentistry portal
At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Dentistry at:
The School of Dentistry
Sagittal section of a tooth
Barodontalgia
Biodontics
Bruxism
Calculus
Crown
Dental amalgam
Dental brace
Dental cavities
Dental extraction
Dental fear
Floss
Dental implants
Dental notation
Dental restoration
Dental spa
Dentin
Fluoridation
Fluoride therapy
Gingivitis
Halitosis
Laboratory technology
Mouthwash
Nitrous oxide
Novocain, a Local anesthetic
Occlusion
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Oral and maxillofacial surgery
Oral hygiene
Orthodontics
Patron Saint of dentistry (Saint Apollonia)
Periodontitis
Periodontology or Periodontics
Plaque
Regenerative dentistry
Teledentistry
Temporomandibular joint disease
Toothache
Toothbrush
Toothpaste
Xerostomia
[edit]
Lists
List of dentists
List of oral health and dental topics
List of basic dentistry topics
List of dental schools in the United States
[edit]
References
^ Dentistry Definitions, hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed 11 December 2007. This definition was adopted the association's House of Delegates in 1997.
^ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2006) Policy on the Use of Xylitol in Caries Prevention.
^ Azarpazhooh, A.; Limeback, H. (2008), The Journal of the American Dental Association (Am Dental Assoc) 139 (7): 915, http://www.adajournal.com/cgi/content/abstract/139/7/915
^ Experimental chewy mint beats tooth decay
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (January 2008). "Clinical decision making in restorative dentistry, endodontics, and antibiotic prescription". J Dent Educ 72 (1): 81–6. PMID 18172239.
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (April 2006). "Decision making of Hebrew University and Tel Aviv University Dental Schools graduates in every day dentistry--is there a difference?". J Isr Dent Assoc 23 (2): 19–23. PMID 16886872.
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (April 2007). "Decision making of Israeli, East European, and South American dental school graduates in third molar surgery: is there a difference?". J Oral Maxillofac Surg 65 (4): 658–62. PMID 17368360. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ a b Gelbier, Stanley. 125 Years of Developments in Dentistry. British Dental Journal (2005); 199, 470-473. Page accessed 11 December 2007. The 1879 register is referred to as the "Dental Register".
^ a b The story of dentistry: Dental History Timeline, hosted on the British Dental Association website. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ History of Dental Surgery in Edinburgh, hosted on the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh website. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ AVDC Home
^ EVDC web site
^ Zadik Y (June 2006). "Dental Fractures on Acute Exposure to High Altitude". Aviat Space Environ Med 77 (6): 654–7. PMID 16780246. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Zadik Y (August 2006). "Barodontalgia due to odontogenic inflammation in the jawbone". Aviat Space Environ Med 77 (8): 864–6. PMID 16909883. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Zadik Y, Chapnik L, Goldstein L (June 2007). "In-flight barodontalgia: analysis of 29 cases in military aircrew". Aviat Space Environ Med 78 (6): 593–6. PMID 17571660. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Lurie, Orit; Zadik, Yehuda; Tarrasch, Ricardo; Raviv, Gil; Goldstein, Liav (February 2007). "Bruxism in Military Pilots and Non-Pilots: Tooth Wear and Psychological Stress". Aviat Space Environ Med 78 (2): 137–9. PMID 17310886. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Stone age man used dentist drill, hosted on the BBC News website. Last updated 6 April 2006. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry: Tooth drilling goes back 9000 years in Pakistan, scientists say, hosted on the MSNBC website. Page accessed on 10 January 2007.
^ Coppa, A. et al. 2006. "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population." Nature. Volume 440. 6 April 2006.
^ History of Dentistry: Ancient Origins, hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed 9 January 2007.
^ Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990.
^ Arab, M. Sameh. Medicine in Ancient Egypt. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Ancient Egyptian Dentistry, hosted on the University of Oklahoma website. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Wilwerding, Terry. History of Dentistry, hosted on the Creighton University School of Dentistry website, page 4. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Medicine in Ancient Egypt 3
^ History of Dentistry Ancient Origins
^ History of Dentistry Research Page, Newsletter
^ Dentistry - Skill And Superstition
^ Dental Treatment in the Ancient Times
^ a b Antique Dental Instruments
^ History of Dentistry Middle Ages
^ History of Dentistry Articles
[edit]
External links
History of Dentistry in the 20th Century by the ADA
Information resource for UK dental professionals
Ancient dentistry discovered
Dentpedia.info - Dental Encyclopedia
Dentistry at the Open Directory Project
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article requires authentication or verification by an expert.
Please assist in recruiting an expert or improve this article yourself. See the talk page for details. (December 2007)
This article is about the dental profession. For tooth care see oral hygiene dental surgery.
A Dentist and Dental Assistant perform surgery on a patient.
Dentistry is the "evaluation, diagnosis, prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical, surgical or related procedures) of diseases, disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and/or the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body". Dentistry is necessary for complete oral health.[1] Those in the practice of dentistry are known as dentists. Other people aiding in oral health service include dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists.Contents [hide]
1 General practices
1.1 Surgery
1.2 Prevention
2 Education and licensing
3 Specialities
4 History
5 Geography
6 Organizations
7 See also
7.1 Lists
8 References
9 External links
[edit]
General practices
[edit]
Surgery
Dentistry usually encompasses a number of practices related to the oral cavity. The most common treatments involve the dental surgery on the teeth as a treatment for dental caries. Decayed teeth can be filled with dental amalgam, dental composite, dental porcelain and precious or non-precious metals. Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a more specialized form of dental surgery. Dentists can prescribe medication, x-rays, and devices for home or in-office use. Many oral diseases (such as bilateral odontogenic keratocysts) and abnormalities (such as several unerupted teeth) can indicate systemic, neural, or other diseases. Most general practitioners of dentistry perform restorative, prosthetic, routine endodontic therapy, routine periodontal therapy, and simple exodontia, as well as performing examinations. Many general practitioners are comfortable treating complex cases, as well as placing implants and surgically extracting third molars (wisdom teeth). All dentists must achieve a certain degree of skill in various disciplines in order to graduate from dental school and become an accredited dentist.
[edit]
Prevention
Dentists also encourage prevention of dental caries through proper hygiene (tooth brushing and flossing), fluoride, and tooth polishing. Recognized but less conventional preventive agents include xylitol, which is bacteriostatic,[2] casein derivatives,[3] and proprietary products such as Cavistat BasicMints.[4]
[edit]
Education and licensing
The Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, the first dental school in the world, opened in Baltimore, Maryland in 1840, and in 1867, Harvard Dental School became the second dental school affiliated with a university.
Studies showed that dentists graduated from different countries[5], or even from different dental schools in one country[6], may have different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend more often for the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) than dentists graduated from Latin-American or Eastern European dental schools.[7]
In England, the 1878 British Dentists Act and 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners.[8][9] The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practicing dentistry.[10] The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practicing illegally.[8] A dentist is a healthcare professional qualified to practice dentistry after graduating with a degree of either Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD), Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent), Bachelor of Dental Science (BDSc), or Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Chirurgiae (BDS) or (BChD) or equivalent. In most western countries, to become a qualified dentist one must usually complete at least 4 years of postgraduate study[citation needed]. Dentists usually complete between 5–8 years of post secondary education before practicing. Though not mandatory, many dentists choose to complete an internship or residency focusing on specific aspects of dental care after they have received their dental degree.
[edit]
Specialities
In addition to general dentistry, there are about 9 recognized dental specialties in the US, Canada, and Australia. To become a specialist requires one to train in a residency or advanced graduate training program. Once residency is completed, the doctor is granted a certificate of specialty training. Many specialty programs have optional or required advanced degrees such as (MD/MBBS specific to Maxillofacial Surgery), MS, or PhD.
Dental public health (study of dental epidemiology and social health policies),
Endodontics (root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp),
Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology (study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases),
Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology (study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases),
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (extractions, implants, and facial surgery),
Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopaedics (straightening of teeth and modification of midface and mandibular growth),
Periodontics (study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical), and placement and maintenance of dental implants),
Pediatric Dentistry (i.e. dentistry for children, formerly known as "pedodontics"),
Prosthodontics (dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. Some prosthodontists further their training in "oral and maxillofacial prosthodontics"--a discipline concerned with the replacement of missing facial structures--such as ears, eyes, nose, etc.)
Specialists in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. "Board Eligible") and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, endodontist, pediatric dentist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. "Board Certified"), (Australia/NZ: "FRACDS"), or (Canada: "FRCD(C)") registry requirements.
A tenth specialty, dental anesthesiology, the study of how to relieve pain through advanced use of local and general anesthesia techniques is not yet considered to be one of the recognized dental specialties. However, CODA is in the process of accrediting all dental anesthesiology programs.[citation needed]
Two other post-graduate formal advanced education programs: General Practice Residency (advanced clinical and didactic training with intense hospital experience) and Advanced Education in General Dentistry (advanced training in clinical dentistry) recognized by the ADA do not lead to specialization.
The American Board of Dental Sleep Medicine (ABDSM) provides board-certification examinations annually for qualified dentists. These dentists collaborate with sleep physicians at accredited sleep centers and can provide oral appliance therapy and upper airway surgery to treat sleep-related breathing disorders.[1] While Diplomate status granted by the ABDSM is not one of the recognized dental specialties, it is recognized by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM).
Special category: Oral Biology - Research in Dental and Craniofacial Biology
Other dental education exists where no post-graduate formal university training is required: cosmetic dentistry, dental implant, temporo-mandibular joint therapy. These usually require the attendance of one or more continuing education courses that typically last for one to several days. There are restrictions on allowing these dentists to call themselves specialists in these fields. The specialist titles are registrable titles and controlled by the local dental licensing bodies.
Forensic odontology consists of the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity.
Geriatric dentistry or geriodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal ageing and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.
Veterinary dentistry, a speciality of veterinary medicine, is the field of dentistry applied to the care of animals[11][12].
Aviation dentistry, a subcategory of (military) aviation medicine deals with dental topics related to aircrews, e.g., dental barotrauma[13] and barodontalgia[14][15]. In addition, the aircrew population is a unique high-risk group to several diseases and harmful conditions due to irregular work shifts with irregular self-oral care habits and irregular meals (usually carbonated drinks and high energy snacks) and work-related stress.[16]
[edit]
History
Farmer at the dentist, Johann Liss, c. 1616-17.
Evidence of ancient dentistry has recently been found in a Neolithic graveyard in the Indus River basin of Pakistan. Teeth dating from around 7000 to 5500 BC show evidence of holes from dental drills. The teeth were found in people of the Indus Valley Civilization.[17][18][19] A Sumerian text from 5000 BC describes a "tooth worm" as the cause of dental caries.[20] Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China. The legend of the worm is also found in the writings of Homer, and as late as the 1300s AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay.[21]
The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, includes the treatment of several dental ailments.[22][23] In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment.[24] Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics and surgery.[25]
Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Aristotle wrote about dentistry, including the eruption pattern of teeth, treating decayed teeth and gum disease, extracting teeth with forceps, and using wires to stabilize loose teeth and fractured jaws.[26] The first use of dental appliances or bridges comes from the Etruscans from as early as 700 BC.[27] Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents.[28][29]
Medieval dentist extracting a tooth. London; c. 1360-75.
Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth, which not only resulted in the alleviation of pain, but often cured a variety of ailments linked to chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac invented the dental pelican[30] (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key[30] which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 20th century.[citation needed]
The first book focused solely on dentistry was the "Artzney Buchlein" in 1530,[31] and the first dental textbook written in English was called "Operator for the Teeth" by Charles Allen in 1685.[9] It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. It is said that the 17th century French physician Pierre Fauchard started dentistry science as we know it today, and he has been named "the father of modern dentistry".[32] Among many of his developments were the extensive use of dental prosthesis, the introduction of dental fillings as a treatment for dental caries and the statement that sugar derivate acids such as tartaric acid are responsible for dental decay.
Army Dental Surgery. Display at Army Medical Services Museum. Typical of dental surgeries, civil and military, during the 1940s and 1950s. Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (November 2008)
A modern Dentist's chair in a Public Hospital Na Wa, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand.
[edit]
Geography
Main article: Dentistry throughout the world
[edit]
Organizations
Main article: List of dental organizations
[edit]
See also Dentistry portal
At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Dentistry at:
The School of Dentistry
Sagittal section of a tooth
Barodontalgia
Biodontics
Bruxism
Calculus
Crown
Dental amalgam
Dental brace
Dental cavities
Dental extraction
Dental fear
Floss
Dental implants
Dental notation
Dental restoration
Dental spa
Dentin
Fluoridation
Fluoride therapy
Gingivitis
Halitosis
Laboratory technology
Mouthwash
Nitrous oxide
Novocain, a Local anesthetic
Occlusion
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Oral and maxillofacial surgery
Oral hygiene
Orthodontics
Patron Saint of dentistry (Saint Apollonia)
Periodontitis
Periodontology or Periodontics
Plaque
Regenerative dentistry
Teledentistry
Temporomandibular joint disease
Toothache
Toothbrush
Toothpaste
Xerostomia
[edit]
Lists
List of dentists
List of oral health and dental topics
List of basic dentistry topics
List of dental schools in the United States
[edit]
References
^ Dentistry Definitions, hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed 11 December 2007. This definition was adopted the association's House of Delegates in 1997.
^ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2006) Policy on the Use of Xylitol in Caries Prevention.
^ Azarpazhooh, A.; Limeback, H. (2008), The Journal of the American Dental Association (Am Dental Assoc) 139 (7): 915, http://www.adajournal.com/cgi/content/abstract/139/7/915
^ Experimental chewy mint beats tooth decay
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (January 2008). "Clinical decision making in restorative dentistry, endodontics, and antibiotic prescription". J Dent Educ 72 (1): 81–6. PMID 18172239.
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (April 2006). "Decision making of Hebrew University and Tel Aviv University Dental Schools graduates in every day dentistry--is there a difference?". J Isr Dent Assoc 23 (2): 19–23. PMID 16886872.
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (April 2007). "Decision making of Israeli, East European, and South American dental school graduates in third molar surgery: is there a difference?". J Oral Maxillofac Surg 65 (4): 658–62. PMID 17368360. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ a b Gelbier, Stanley. 125 Years of Developments in Dentistry. British Dental Journal (2005); 199, 470-473. Page accessed 11 December 2007. The 1879 register is referred to as the "Dental Register".
^ a b The story of dentistry: Dental History Timeline, hosted on the British Dental Association website. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ History of Dental Surgery in Edinburgh, hosted on the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh website. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ AVDC Home
^ EVDC web site
^ Zadik Y (June 2006). "Dental Fractures on Acute Exposure to High Altitude". Aviat Space Environ Med 77 (6): 654–7. PMID 16780246. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Zadik Y (August 2006). "Barodontalgia due to odontogenic inflammation in the jawbone". Aviat Space Environ Med 77 (8): 864–6. PMID 16909883. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Zadik Y, Chapnik L, Goldstein L (June 2007). "In-flight barodontalgia: analysis of 29 cases in military aircrew". Aviat Space Environ Med 78 (6): 593–6. PMID 17571660. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Lurie, Orit; Zadik, Yehuda; Tarrasch, Ricardo; Raviv, Gil; Goldstein, Liav (February 2007). "Bruxism in Military Pilots and Non-Pilots: Tooth Wear and Psychological Stress". Aviat Space Environ Med 78 (2): 137–9. PMID 17310886. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Stone age man used dentist drill, hosted on the BBC News website. Last updated 6 April 2006. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry: Tooth drilling goes back 9000 years in Pakistan, scientists say, hosted on the MSNBC website. Page accessed on 10 January 2007.
^ Coppa, A. et al. 2006. "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population." Nature. Volume 440. 6 April 2006.
^ History of Dentistry: Ancient Origins, hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed 9 January 2007.
^ Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990.
^ Arab, M. Sameh. Medicine in Ancient Egypt. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Ancient Egyptian Dentistry, hosted on the University of Oklahoma website. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Wilwerding, Terry. History of Dentistry, hosted on the Creighton University School of Dentistry website, page 4. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Medicine in Ancient Egypt 3
^ History of Dentistry Ancient Origins
^ History of Dentistry Research Page, Newsletter
^ Dentistry - Skill And Superstition
^ Dental Treatment in the Ancient Times
^ a b Antique Dental Instruments
^ History of Dentistry Middle Ages
^ History of Dentistry Articles
[edit]
External links
History of Dentistry in the 20th Century by the ADA
Information resource for UK dental professionals
Ancient dentistry discovered
Dentpedia.info - Dental Encyclopedia
Dentistry at the Open Directory Project
[TIPS]Menggosok Gigi
Posted by: lareosing on: December 1, 2008
In: TIPS Comment!
Tips menggosok gigi :
Sikat gigi hendaknya dipegang sedemikian rupa sehingga bulu sikat mengarah ke akar gigi.
Gosoklah seluruh permukaan gigi yang menghadap ke pipi dan lidah. Letakkan sikat gigi pada posisi kurang lebih 45 derajat di daerah perbatasan antara antara gigi dan gusi.. Tekan dan tarik perlahan-lahan sikat ke arah bawah bagi gigi atas dan ke arah atas bagi gigi bawah.
Gerakan dilakukan kurang lebih 10 kali pada setiap bagian
Permukaan kunyah gigi dibersihkan dengan gerakan rotasi atau gerakan ke depan belakang.
Gosoklah gigi dua kali sehari, yaitu pagi setelah sarapan dan malam sebelum tidur.
Agar lebih efektif gunakan cermin sebagai alat bantu ketika menggosok gigi.
Kontrol kesehatan gigi dan mulut anda dengan teratur mengunjungi dokter gigi minimal 6 bulan satu kali
Untuk anak, perhatikan hal-hal berikut ini:
Untuk anak pada satu tahun pertama usahakan tetap melakukan rutinitas memberihkan gigi dan gusi minimal sehari satu kali dengan kasa/kain lembut yang dibasahi air hangat.
Gosoklah gigi dengan lembut ke dalam dan keluar untuk mengeluarkan sisa makanan yg tertinggal
Jika gigi susunya telah tumbuh secara lengkap (kira-kira 2 – 2,5 tahun) mulailah ajari cara menggosok gigi yang benar. Ciptakan suasana yang menarik sehingga si kecil menikmati acara gosok giginya. Lakukan penyikatan ulang oleh ibunda sebagai finishing touch setelah si kecil menggosok giginya
Jangan lupa berikan pujian untuk si kecil jika ia sudah berusaha menggosok gigi sendiri
In: TIPS Comment!
Tips menggosok gigi :
Sikat gigi hendaknya dipegang sedemikian rupa sehingga bulu sikat mengarah ke akar gigi.
Gosoklah seluruh permukaan gigi yang menghadap ke pipi dan lidah. Letakkan sikat gigi pada posisi kurang lebih 45 derajat di daerah perbatasan antara antara gigi dan gusi.. Tekan dan tarik perlahan-lahan sikat ke arah bawah bagi gigi atas dan ke arah atas bagi gigi bawah.
Gerakan dilakukan kurang lebih 10 kali pada setiap bagian
Permukaan kunyah gigi dibersihkan dengan gerakan rotasi atau gerakan ke depan belakang.
Gosoklah gigi dua kali sehari, yaitu pagi setelah sarapan dan malam sebelum tidur.
Agar lebih efektif gunakan cermin sebagai alat bantu ketika menggosok gigi.
Kontrol kesehatan gigi dan mulut anda dengan teratur mengunjungi dokter gigi minimal 6 bulan satu kali
Untuk anak, perhatikan hal-hal berikut ini:
Untuk anak pada satu tahun pertama usahakan tetap melakukan rutinitas memberihkan gigi dan gusi minimal sehari satu kali dengan kasa/kain lembut yang dibasahi air hangat.
Gosoklah gigi dengan lembut ke dalam dan keluar untuk mengeluarkan sisa makanan yg tertinggal
Jika gigi susunya telah tumbuh secara lengkap (kira-kira 2 – 2,5 tahun) mulailah ajari cara menggosok gigi yang benar. Ciptakan suasana yang menarik sehingga si kecil menikmati acara gosok giginya. Lakukan penyikatan ulang oleh ibunda sebagai finishing touch setelah si kecil menggosok giginya
Jangan lupa berikan pujian untuk si kecil jika ia sudah berusaha menggosok gigi sendiri
BENARKAH,SAKIT GIGI BISA MENYEBABKAN DISFUNGSI EREKSI.?”
BENARKAH,SAKIT GIGI BISA MENYEBABKAN DISFUNGSI EREKSI.?”Siapa sih yang sudi sakit gigi? Meski lagu bertajuk Lebih Baik Sakit Gigi yang dilantunkan Meggy Z. pernah menjadi hit, benarkah orang punya penilaian sama seperti syair lagu tersebut–daripada sakit hati lebih baik sakit gigi? Maklum, sakit gigi identik dengan nyeri tak berkesudahan disertai rasa pening dan sakit di sekujur tubuh. Bila gigi terasa nyeri, jangankan bekerja, hubungan seksual yang nikmat bagi hampir seluruh umat manusia pun akan ditinggalkan.
Hal ini benar-benar terjadi di Makassar dan mungkin di seluruh dunia. Drg Hasanuddin Thahir, SpPerio dari Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Sulawesi Selatan, berulang kali menerima keluhan ini. Para lelaki yang datang ke tempat prakteknya mengungkapkan “dingin”-nya ranjang mereka akibat nyeri gigi yang amat menyakitkan.
“Bila sakit gigi menerpa mereka selama satu pekan, selama itu pula mereka tak menyentuh istri. Kata mereka, boro-boro berhubungan seksual, nyeri gigi ini mengganggu seluruh aktivitas keseharian,” ujar Thahir kepada wartawan di sela-sela Kongres Dokter Gigi Asia Pasifik (APDC) ke-29 di Jakarta akhir April lalu.
Nyeri gigi ini, kata Thahir, terutama diakibatkan oleh caries gigi dan penyakit periodontal yang prevalensinya sangat tinggi di Indonesia. Rasa sakit di daerah tertentu, seperti pada gigi, rupanya mempengaruhi interaksi antara faktor psikoneuroendokrin dan faktor vaskular yang menyebabkan disfungsi ereksi.
Tertarik dengan kondisi ini, Thahir mewakili Bagian Periodontologi Fakultas Kedokteran Gigi bekerja sama dengan Wardihan Sinrang dari Bagian Fisiologi Fakultas Kedokteran–keduanya dari Universitas Hasanudin–melakukan penelitian terhadap pengaruh nyeri gigi terhadap disfungsi ereksi pada penderita nyeri gigi. Hasil penelitian ini dipresentasikan dalam kongres tersebut.
Sebanyak 35 orang berusia 35-55 tahun ikut berpartisipasi dalam penelitian yang digelar. Partisipan yang diambil adalah orang berusia di atas 35 tahun. Menurut kedua peneliti tersebut, ini karena pada pria di bawah 35 tahun, meski mengalami nyeri pada gigi, derita itu tak mengurangi gairah seks mereka.
Para partisipan, kata Thahir, didiagnosis mengidap pulpitis akut atau nyeri akibat gigi berlubang yang amat sangat (10 orang), pulpitis kronis (7 orang), periodontitis akut atau radang antara gusi dan gigi yang amat sangat (6 orang), serta hyperaemia pulpa atau ngilu gigi (6 orang). Semua partisipan memiliki keluhan rasa nyeri pada gigi paling sedikit selama seminggu dan selanjutnya dievaluasi setelah dilakukan perawatan.
Data diambil berdasarkan wawancara dan secara tertulis. Yang menarik, seorang responden terpaksa dicoret karena meski nyeri gigi, ia tetap melakukan hubungan seksual dengan wanita selingkuhannya. “Kami memang membatasi para partisipan pada pria beristri dan tak memiliki wanita idaman lain,” ujar Thahir sembari tersenyum lebar.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa nyeri gigi pada pulpitis akut, periodontitis akut, dan hyperaemia pulpa (hipersensitif dentin) menyebabkan disfungsi ereksi. Nyeri gigi ini mempengaruhi rangsangan seksual sehingga frekuensi hubungan seksual secara nyata menjadi berkurang. Bahkan pada kasus pulpitis akut dan periodontitis akut, hubungan seksual pada minggu pertama dan kedua berkurang 90-97 persen. Sedangkan nyeri gigi pada periodontitis kronis dan pulpitis kronis tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan.
Di samping itu, pada penderita periodontal abses, meskipun dapat melakukan hubungan seksual, aktivitas ciuman dalam hubungan seksual menurun secara nyata. “Tak bisa mencium pasangan Anda berarti menurunkan kadar keintiman,” dia menandaskan. Ia menyimpulkan nyeri yang ditimbulkan oleh penyakit gigi dan periodontal dapat mempengaruhi kehidupan seksual. “Akibatnya tentu sangat buruk. Selama satu pekan itu, kualitas hidup seseorang memburuk secara signifikan,” ia menegaskan.
Disfungsi ereksi pada kasus nyeri gigi, menurut Thahir dan Wardihan, diduga terjadi akibat penghambatan atau penekanan pada saraf parasimpatis sehingga tidak mampu melepaskan pengantar saraf pada otot polos korpus kavernosum, yang selanjutnya menyebabkan dilatasi pembuluh darah perifer.
Selain itu, otak di daerah thalamus dan hypothalamus sudah penuh dengan sensasi nyeri sehingga daerah tersebut tidak mampu mempersepsi sensasi seksual yang diterima, baik melalui rangsang rabaan, visual, atau imajinasi, sehingga sensasi tersebut tidak dapat diteruskan ke serabut saraf desenden menuju pusat ereksi di daerah segmen torakolumbal atau penis. Untuk itu, jagalah kesehatan mulut dan gigi Anda dengan baik. Bila diabaikan, ranjang Anda mungkin akan sedingin puncak Jayawijaya!
Hal ini benar-benar terjadi di Makassar dan mungkin di seluruh dunia. Drg Hasanuddin Thahir, SpPerio dari Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Sulawesi Selatan, berulang kali menerima keluhan ini. Para lelaki yang datang ke tempat prakteknya mengungkapkan “dingin”-nya ranjang mereka akibat nyeri gigi yang amat menyakitkan.
“Bila sakit gigi menerpa mereka selama satu pekan, selama itu pula mereka tak menyentuh istri. Kata mereka, boro-boro berhubungan seksual, nyeri gigi ini mengganggu seluruh aktivitas keseharian,” ujar Thahir kepada wartawan di sela-sela Kongres Dokter Gigi Asia Pasifik (APDC) ke-29 di Jakarta akhir April lalu.
Nyeri gigi ini, kata Thahir, terutama diakibatkan oleh caries gigi dan penyakit periodontal yang prevalensinya sangat tinggi di Indonesia. Rasa sakit di daerah tertentu, seperti pada gigi, rupanya mempengaruhi interaksi antara faktor psikoneuroendokrin dan faktor vaskular yang menyebabkan disfungsi ereksi.
Tertarik dengan kondisi ini, Thahir mewakili Bagian Periodontologi Fakultas Kedokteran Gigi bekerja sama dengan Wardihan Sinrang dari Bagian Fisiologi Fakultas Kedokteran–keduanya dari Universitas Hasanudin–melakukan penelitian terhadap pengaruh nyeri gigi terhadap disfungsi ereksi pada penderita nyeri gigi. Hasil penelitian ini dipresentasikan dalam kongres tersebut.
Sebanyak 35 orang berusia 35-55 tahun ikut berpartisipasi dalam penelitian yang digelar. Partisipan yang diambil adalah orang berusia di atas 35 tahun. Menurut kedua peneliti tersebut, ini karena pada pria di bawah 35 tahun, meski mengalami nyeri pada gigi, derita itu tak mengurangi gairah seks mereka.
Para partisipan, kata Thahir, didiagnosis mengidap pulpitis akut atau nyeri akibat gigi berlubang yang amat sangat (10 orang), pulpitis kronis (7 orang), periodontitis akut atau radang antara gusi dan gigi yang amat sangat (6 orang), serta hyperaemia pulpa atau ngilu gigi (6 orang). Semua partisipan memiliki keluhan rasa nyeri pada gigi paling sedikit selama seminggu dan selanjutnya dievaluasi setelah dilakukan perawatan.
Data diambil berdasarkan wawancara dan secara tertulis. Yang menarik, seorang responden terpaksa dicoret karena meski nyeri gigi, ia tetap melakukan hubungan seksual dengan wanita selingkuhannya. “Kami memang membatasi para partisipan pada pria beristri dan tak memiliki wanita idaman lain,” ujar Thahir sembari tersenyum lebar.
Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa nyeri gigi pada pulpitis akut, periodontitis akut, dan hyperaemia pulpa (hipersensitif dentin) menyebabkan disfungsi ereksi. Nyeri gigi ini mempengaruhi rangsangan seksual sehingga frekuensi hubungan seksual secara nyata menjadi berkurang. Bahkan pada kasus pulpitis akut dan periodontitis akut, hubungan seksual pada minggu pertama dan kedua berkurang 90-97 persen. Sedangkan nyeri gigi pada periodontitis kronis dan pulpitis kronis tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan.
Di samping itu, pada penderita periodontal abses, meskipun dapat melakukan hubungan seksual, aktivitas ciuman dalam hubungan seksual menurun secara nyata. “Tak bisa mencium pasangan Anda berarti menurunkan kadar keintiman,” dia menandaskan. Ia menyimpulkan nyeri yang ditimbulkan oleh penyakit gigi dan periodontal dapat mempengaruhi kehidupan seksual. “Akibatnya tentu sangat buruk. Selama satu pekan itu, kualitas hidup seseorang memburuk secara signifikan,” ia menegaskan.
Disfungsi ereksi pada kasus nyeri gigi, menurut Thahir dan Wardihan, diduga terjadi akibat penghambatan atau penekanan pada saraf parasimpatis sehingga tidak mampu melepaskan pengantar saraf pada otot polos korpus kavernosum, yang selanjutnya menyebabkan dilatasi pembuluh darah perifer.
Selain itu, otak di daerah thalamus dan hypothalamus sudah penuh dengan sensasi nyeri sehingga daerah tersebut tidak mampu mempersepsi sensasi seksual yang diterima, baik melalui rangsang rabaan, visual, atau imajinasi, sehingga sensasi tersebut tidak dapat diteruskan ke serabut saraf desenden menuju pusat ereksi di daerah segmen torakolumbal atau penis. Untuk itu, jagalah kesehatan mulut dan gigi Anda dengan baik. Bila diabaikan, ranjang Anda mungkin akan sedingin puncak Jayawijaya!
Erosi Gigi Berkat Softdrink
Gula dan asam yang terkandung di dalam softdrink dan jus jeruk dapat menyebabkan terjadinya erosi gigi, yang artinya mengikis gigi. Hal ini dapat memicu terjadinya gigi sensitif atau gigi linu. Minuman sehat apa yang bisa menjadi alternatif pengganti softdrink dan jus jeruk?
Berdasarkan penelitian yang tercantum di Journal of Academy of General Dentistry bulan Juli/Agustus, pilihan minuman yang terbaik adalah teh.
Selain rasanya nikmat, teh juga memiliki keuntungan dari segi kesehatan. Teh dilengkapi oleh antioksidan alami yang dipercaya dapat mengurangi insidensi terjadinya kanker, penyakit kardiovaskular, dan diabetes.
Dalam kaitannya dengan erosi gigi, peneliti menambahkan bahwa antara teh hijau dengan teh hitam sama-sama baik untuk gigi. Kedua minuman ini sama seperti air, tidak mengerosi gigi. Sementara itu, untuk kandungan flavonoid alami dan antioksidan, teh hijau dipercaya lebih baik daripada teh hitam menurut berbagai penelitian di berbagai negara seperti Jepang dan Eropa.
Namun, jika Anda ingin meminum teh, para ahli menyarankan agar jangan menambah zat penambah rasa, seperti susu, gula, atau lemon. Karena zat-zat ini akan menyatu dengan flavonoid alami dari teh dan akan mengurangi efek antioksidannya. Sebagai tambahan, sebaiknya Anda menghindari minuman teh kemasan karena biasanya mereka mengandung citric acid dan gula dalam jumlah yang cukup tinggi.
Brewed Tea Is The Best Drink To Avoid Tooth Erosion
Apabila Anda ingin berlangganan berita terbaru dari Gigi Sehat Badan Sehat, daftarkanlah alamat email Anda dengan meng-klik kata berlangganan: Berlangganan.
Berita terbaru dari Gigi Sehat Badan Sehat akan langsung dikirimkan ke email Anda.
Berdasarkan penelitian yang tercantum di Journal of Academy of General Dentistry bulan Juli/Agustus, pilihan minuman yang terbaik adalah teh.
Selain rasanya nikmat, teh juga memiliki keuntungan dari segi kesehatan. Teh dilengkapi oleh antioksidan alami yang dipercaya dapat mengurangi insidensi terjadinya kanker, penyakit kardiovaskular, dan diabetes.
Dalam kaitannya dengan erosi gigi, peneliti menambahkan bahwa antara teh hijau dengan teh hitam sama-sama baik untuk gigi. Kedua minuman ini sama seperti air, tidak mengerosi gigi. Sementara itu, untuk kandungan flavonoid alami dan antioksidan, teh hijau dipercaya lebih baik daripada teh hitam menurut berbagai penelitian di berbagai negara seperti Jepang dan Eropa.
Namun, jika Anda ingin meminum teh, para ahli menyarankan agar jangan menambah zat penambah rasa, seperti susu, gula, atau lemon. Karena zat-zat ini akan menyatu dengan flavonoid alami dari teh dan akan mengurangi efek antioksidannya. Sebagai tambahan, sebaiknya Anda menghindari minuman teh kemasan karena biasanya mereka mengandung citric acid dan gula dalam jumlah yang cukup tinggi.
Brewed Tea Is The Best Drink To Avoid Tooth Erosion
Apabila Anda ingin berlangganan berita terbaru dari Gigi Sehat Badan Sehat, daftarkanlah alamat email Anda dengan meng-klik kata berlangganan: Berlangganan.
Berita terbaru dari Gigi Sehat Badan Sehat akan langsung dikirimkan ke email Anda.
Konsern hari ini: Dokter Gigi Holistik?
Hari ini saya menemani mama tercinta ke dokter gigi. Lumayan membangkitkan ingatan "menarik" masa kecil saat terdengar bunyi-bunyi bor gigi :D. Diantara mesin-mesin perang tersebut, saya bertanya-tanya, "Adakah jalan damai?" -terlepas dari konteks alat-alat canggih, ya. Kuriosita saya adalah eksistensi pengobatan 'damai'. Tanpa alat perang :D
Hal ini akan menjadi pertanyaan yang menunggu datangnya jawaban. Baik itu dari kolom komentar, atau yang datang sendiri bersedia membantu saya :)
Hal ini akan menjadi pertanyaan yang menunggu datangnya jawaban. Baik itu dari kolom komentar, atau yang datang sendiri bersedia membantu saya :)
Konsern hari ini: Dokter Gigi Holistik?
Hari ini saya menemani mama tercinta ke dokter gigi. Lumayan membangkitkan ingatan "menarik" masa kecil saat terdengar bunyi-bunyi bor gigi :D. Diantara mesin-mesin perang tersebut, saya bertanya-tanya, "Adakah jalan damai?" -terlepas dari konteks alat-alat canggih, ya. Kuriosita saya adalah eksistensi pengobatan 'damai'. Tanpa alat perang :D
Hal ini akan menjadi pertanyaan yang menunggu datangnya jawaban. Baik itu dari kolom komentar, atau yang datang sendiri bersedia membantu saya :)
Hal ini akan menjadi pertanyaan yang menunggu datangnya jawaban. Baik itu dari kolom komentar, atau yang datang sendiri bersedia membantu saya :)
Laser Teeth Whitening
Laser Teeth Whitening
Saturday, September 13th, 2008 Subscribe To Our Feed
There’s something about a great smile. Especially a great smile that shows off beautiful white teeth. A bright white smile says “healthy”, and admit it, people with beautiful white teeth somehow just look happier and more attractive. A whiter smile can make a person more confident and outgoing in social situations. Unfortunately most of us don’t have as great a smile that we could. Years of drinking dark colored beverages such as coffee, tea, soda, and red wine, smoking, and aging take their toll on the color of tooth enamel. The great news is that today anyone can have a dazzling white smile.
Teeth whitening has become the most common form of cosmetic dentistry performed over the last few years. It’s a very simple and fairly inexpensive way to greatly improve your smile. There are several ways to whiten your teeth depending on the amount of money you want to spend, and your level of patience. You can choose from tooth whitening gels and whitening toothpaste, bleaching strips, bleaching gel with a fitted mouth tray, or laser teeth whitening. Laser teeth whitening is sometimes called in-office bleaching. Of all these different types of alternatives laser teeth whitening is the fastest way to a white smile, it’s also the most expensive. A one hour teeth whitening session generally runs around $600.00.
Laser teeth whitening is considered the top of the line treatment and takes about one hour. The dentist applies a bleach solvent containing hydrogen peroxide to the teeth. You will find that hydrogen peroxide is found in all teeth whitening products. The higher the amount of hydrogen peroxide the faster the tooth whitening will take place. Once the bleach is on the teeth the teeth are subjected to a light source, usually a laser. This laser activates the hydrogen peroxide. This application is left on your teeth for twenty minutes. This process is then repeated two more times before you are done.
Of course, the results you receive from any tooth whitening system will fade over time. Trying to avoid dark colored drinks and not smoking will help you enjoy the results for a longer peroid of time.
Like this post? Publish It On Your Own Blog
Saturday, September 13th, 2008 Subscribe To Our Feed
There’s something about a great smile. Especially a great smile that shows off beautiful white teeth. A bright white smile says “healthy”, and admit it, people with beautiful white teeth somehow just look happier and more attractive. A whiter smile can make a person more confident and outgoing in social situations. Unfortunately most of us don’t have as great a smile that we could. Years of drinking dark colored beverages such as coffee, tea, soda, and red wine, smoking, and aging take their toll on the color of tooth enamel. The great news is that today anyone can have a dazzling white smile.
Teeth whitening has become the most common form of cosmetic dentistry performed over the last few years. It’s a very simple and fairly inexpensive way to greatly improve your smile. There are several ways to whiten your teeth depending on the amount of money you want to spend, and your level of patience. You can choose from tooth whitening gels and whitening toothpaste, bleaching strips, bleaching gel with a fitted mouth tray, or laser teeth whitening. Laser teeth whitening is sometimes called in-office bleaching. Of all these different types of alternatives laser teeth whitening is the fastest way to a white smile, it’s also the most expensive. A one hour teeth whitening session generally runs around $600.00.
Laser teeth whitening is considered the top of the line treatment and takes about one hour. The dentist applies a bleach solvent containing hydrogen peroxide to the teeth. You will find that hydrogen peroxide is found in all teeth whitening products. The higher the amount of hydrogen peroxide the faster the tooth whitening will take place. Once the bleach is on the teeth the teeth are subjected to a light source, usually a laser. This laser activates the hydrogen peroxide. This application is left on your teeth for twenty minutes. This process is then repeated two more times before you are done.
Of course, the results you receive from any tooth whitening system will fade over time. Trying to avoid dark colored drinks and not smoking will help you enjoy the results for a longer peroid of time.
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