TOP DENTISTRY

Pentingnya Sikat Gigi Malam Hari

2009-02-09T06:33:00.001-08:00

Pentingnya Sikat Gigi Malam Hari
oleh : Dokter Handrawan Nadesul

Kualitas gigi seseorang ditentukan benih gigi dan bagaimana gigi-geligi dirawat sejak awal kali tumbuh. Benih gigi dipengaruhi oleh nutrisi ibu selama anak dalam kandungan. Perawatan gigi anak juga tergantung bagaimana ibu membantu merawatnya. Bagaimana perawatan gigi balita perlu dilakukan?

GIGI anak berjumlah duapuluh. Gigi dewasa tigapuluhdua. Saat lahir, dalam rahang bayi terdapat 44 buah gigi yang tengah dibentuk. Duapuluh gigi susu, duapuluh gigi dewasa, dan empat kantung gigi geraham dewasa. Duapuluh akan keluar sebagai gigi susu (primary dentition). Rata-rata gigi pertama akan keluar (erupsi) pada umur 7 bulan yang muncul sebagai gigi seri bawah.

Anak perempuan dan bayi yang diberi ASI lebih cepat erupsi dibanding anak laki-laki, atau yang bukan diberi ASI. Erupsi gigi juga tergantung etnis, dan bersifat individual pula. Misal, anak yang mengalami gangguan tulang, atau anak dengan keterbelakang mental, erupsi gigi susunya umumnya terlambat.

Selang beberapa bulan setelah gigi susu pertama disusul gigi seri atas, gigi seri bawah pada umur setahun, gigi geraham pertama pada umur 14 bulan, selanjutnya gigi geraham kedua setelah berumur 2 tahun. Gigi susu sudah lengkap keluar setelah anak berumur 2 tahun.

Gigi susu perlu dipertahankan sampai gigi tetap keluar
Umur gigi susu sekitar 6-10 tahun saja. Pada saat anak berumur 6 tahun, gigi susu pertama sudah tanggal dan digantikan oleh gigi tetap (permanent dentition). Gigi tetap pertama, yakni prageraham pertama. Menyusul gigi seri, prageraham kedua, taring, dan geraham kedua pada umur 12 tahun. Terakhir geraham bungsu baru erupsi antara umur 18-25 tahun.

Masing-masing gigi susu ada umurnya. Gigi susu sebaiknya tanggal secara alami. Bila tanggal sebelum umurnya, akan menyesatkan keluarnya gigi tetap. Susunan gigi tetap yang tidak seteratur gigi susu apabila gigi susu sudah tanggal sebelum umurnya.

Gigi susu yang membukakan jalan bagi keluarnya gigi tetap. Bila gigi susu sudah tak ada, sementara gigi tetap belum cukup matang untuk keluar, maka arah keluarnya tidak mengikuti jalan gigi susu. Maka posisi gigi tetapnya tak tentu arah. Setelah dewasa susunan gigi-geligi anak menjadi mirip ban radial.

Agar gigi susu tanggal pada umurnya, gigi harus dirawat. Karena lapisan luar (enamel) gigi susu tidak sekuat gigi tetap, gigi susu lebih gampang keropos. Pengeroposan gigi biasanya terjadi oleh proses mikrobiologis dan kimiawi.

Sisa makanan berkarbohidrat (nasi roti, ubi, ketela, kentang) dan yang serba manis, bila terselip pada permukaan gigi akan terjadi proses fermentasi. Bersama dengan kuman di rongga mulut, membentuk zat asam. Zat asam lactat ini yang akan menghancurkan lapisan luar gigi membentuk caries, atau gigi bolong.

Diseka kapas, berkumur, dan sikat gigi
Maka di permukaan gigi tidak boleh ada sisa makanan. Khususnya yang berkarbohidrat, seperti biskuit, cokelat, permen, kue, es krim, dan sejenisnya. Membiarkan sisa makanan berarti gagal mencegah pengeroposan gigi. Gigi yang keropos dan tidak dirawat, akan hancur, tanggal, lalu berakhir sebagai sisa akar.

Bayi belum mampu berkumur, apalagi menyikat gigi sendiri. Maka selama masa bayi, ibu sendiri yang membantu menyeka permukaan gigi anak dengan kapas basah steril. Setiap kali selesai makan dan minum, biasakan menyeka gigi. Kesehatan gigi balita ditentukan oleh perawatan gigi semenjak usia bayi.

Setelah anak mampu berkumur, biasakan mengajaknya berkumur-kumur setiap kali selesai makan dan minum. Ajarkan pula menyikat gigi. Mungkin belum sempurna. Ibu perlu membimbingnya menyikat gigi yang benar.

Pada usia balita rata-rata anak sudah mahir menyikat gigi sendiri. Biasakan paling kurang dua kali sehari. Pagi hari sehabis sarapan, dan malam hari sebelum tidur. Siang hari, dan setiap kali selesai makan, sekurang-kurangnya berkumur-kumur.

Menyikat gigi malam hari sesungguhnya jauh lebih penting ketimbang pagi hari. Mengapa? Oleh karena selama tidur malam hari mulut terkatup. Selama mulut terkatup, bila ada sisa makanan pada permukaan gigi, ia akan bertahan lebih lama menetap di situ. Sedang selama siang hari, anak masih melakukan kegiatan makan dan minum, sehingga bila ada sisa makanan yang terselip di permukaan gigi akan terhanyut terbawa oleh makanan dan minuman yang dikonsumsi.

Anak yang tidak menyikat gigi malam hari risiko pengeroposan giginya lebih besar. Gigi keropos dan dibiarkan tanpa perawatan menimbulkan warna hitam pada permukaan gigi. Lama-kelamaan terjadi pembusukan gigi. Lalu infeksi akar gigi, infeksi gusi, dan gusi membengkak. Selanjutnya gigi akan hancur, rusak sebelum waktunya.

Untuk menyehatkan gigi balita, biasakan menggigit apel, jambu, bengkuang, timun, dan sejenisnya. Selain melatih kekerasan gigi, dengan menggigit buah keras, permukaan gigi dibersihkan. Demikian pula yang diperoleh selama mengunyahnya.

Segera ditambal bila mulai bolong
Gigi susu yang sudah mulai keropos perlu dirawat, sebelum telanjur bolong. Untuk itu perlu penambalan. Adakalanya, sekalipun sudah teratur menyikat gigi, bila benih giginya kurang bagus, gigi masih bisa keropos juga (decalcification).

Dengan melakukan penambalan gigi susu, gigi diharapkan masih mampu bertahan sampai umurnya. Dengan demikian, ia akan menunggu sampai saatnya gigi tetapnya mulai keluar.

Pemberian ekstra kalsium saja hanya bermanfaat semasa gigi belum keluar. Pembentukan benih gigi membutuhkan kalsium. Percuma apabila gigi sudah erupsi. Bila diduga kualitas gigi kurang bagus, perlu diberikan ekstra fluor. Fluor bisa terkandung dalam air minum (leding) dan pasta gigi. Atau berupa pengolesan fluor pada permukaan gigi setiap enam bulan sekali.

Menyikat gigi yang benar pada anak harus dibentuk. Jika sudah keliru sejak awal, selanjutnya akan terbentuk cara menyikat yang tidak benar. Prinsipnya seluruh permukaan gigi tidak ada yang terluput dari penyikatan.

Sering-sering bagian-bagian permukaan gigi yang sulit tersentuh, atau sukar dijangkau, lokasi gigi yang sering terancam keropos. Maka upayakan bukan sekadar menyikat gigi belaka. Terlebih ihwal menyikat gigi malam hari. Karena sepanjang malam hari inilah proses hebat pengrusakan gigi yang paling kerap terjadi.

sumber: SahabatNestle

PERTUMBUHAN GIGI GELIGI

2009-02-09T06:31:00.001-08:00

PERTUMBUHAN GIGI GELIGI
Maret 23, 2007 oleh Evy

Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan dari gigi geligi seperti halnya organ lainnya telah dimulai sejak 4 – 5 bulan dalam kandungan. Pada waktu lahir, maksila (Rahang atas) dan mandibula (Rahang Bawah) merupakan tulang yang telah dipenuhi oleh benih-benih gigi dalam berbagai tingkat perkembangan. Tulang alveolar hanya dilapisi oleh mucoperiosteum yang merupakan bantalan dari gusi.

Pada saat lahir, tulang maksila dan mandibula terlihat mahkota gigi-gigi sulung telah terbentuk dan mengalami kalsifikasi, sedangkan benih gigi-gigi tetap masih berupa tonjolan epitel. Pada umur 6 – 7 bulan telah terjadi erupsi gigi insisif pertama pada rahang bawah. Pada umur 2 ½ - 3 tahun semua gigi sulung telah erupsi dan email gigi-gigi sulung telah terbentuk sempuna.

Ternyata gigi tumbuh pake di jadwalin juga ya? Kenapa ga sekaligus aja? Itulah hebatnya Sang Pencipta, manusia sudah diprogram dan disiapkan sedemikian rupa sesuai dengan kesiapan alat pencernaan lainnya untuk menerima makanan padat. Bayangin kalau tumbuh sekaligus masih bayi, khan bisa babak belur to nenen-nya, lha kegigit dua aja udah pringisan, mau mencet hidung bayi supaya buka mulut ga tega lagi enak2nya nyusu…

Pertumbuhan dan perkembangan gigi ini terlihat pada tabel berikut ini :

GIGI SULUNG

Rahang Gigi Pembentukan Erupsi Akar lengkap

Atas Insisif pertama 4 bl inutero 7 ½ bl 1 ½ th
Insisif kedua 4 ½ bl inutero 9 bl 2 th
Caninus 5 bl inutero 18 bl 3 ½ th
Molar pertama 5 bl inutero 14 bl 2 ½ th
Molar kedua 6 bl inutero 24 bl 3 th
Bawah Insisif pertama 4 ½ bl inutero 7 bl 1 ½ th
Insisif kedua 4 ½ bl inutero 7 bl 1 ½ th
Caninus 5 bl inutero 16 bl 3 ½ th
Molar pertama 3 bl inutero 12 bl 2 ½ th
Molar kedua 6 bl inutero 20 bl 3 th

GIGI TETAP

Rahang Gigi Mulai terbentuk Erupsi Akar lengkap

Atas Insisif pertama 3 - 4 bl 7 – 8 th 10 tahun
Insisif kedua 10 - 12 bl 8 – 9 th 11 tahun
Caninus 4 – 5 bl 11 – 12 th 13 – 15 th
Premolar pertama 18-21 bl 10 – 12 th 12 – 14 th
Premolar kedua 30–33 bl 10 – 12 th 12 –14 th
Molar pertama 0 – 3 bl 6 – 7 th 9 – 10 th
Molar kedua 27 – 36 bl 12 – 13 th 14 – 16 th
Molar ketig 7 – 9 th 17 – 21 th 18 – 25 th
Bawah Insisif pertama 3 – 4 bl 6 – 7 th 9 th
Insisif kedua 3 – 4 bl 7 – 8 th 10 th
Caninus 4 – 6 bl 9 – 10 th 12 – 14 th
Premolar pertama 18 – 24 bl 10 – 12 th 12 –13 th
Premolar kedua 24 – 30 bl 11 – 12 th 13 – 14 th
Molar pertam 0 – 3 bl 6 – 7 th 9 – 10 th
Molar kedua 2 – 3 th 11 – 13 th 14 – 15 th
Molar ketiga 8 – 10 th 17 – 21 th 18 – 25 th

Hayyooo sekarang di periksa udah pada lengkap semua belum gigi-nya, kalau belum perlu diragukan kejantanannya kedewasaannya hehehehe…

PERTUMBUHAN GIGI GELIGI

2009-02-09T06:31:00.000-08:00

tumor gigi

2009-02-09T06:29:00.000-08:00

Jenis-jenis Tumor Mulut

Pembengkakan yang terjadi dalam mulut yang bukan disebabkan oleh infeksi disebut tumor.

Tumor terbagi dua macam yaitu :

1. Tumor Jinak

Tumor ini tiam menjalar (metastase) hanya membesar pada tempat yang tumbuh saja. Tumor jinak ini terdiri dari:

Papiloma, dapat terjadi pada gusi,langit-langit ,lidah , dasar mulut, dan bibir. Bentuknua agak bulat dengan ukuran 2 sampai 5 mm. Papiloma ini lebih keras dari jaringan sekitarnya.

Ameloblastoma. Tumor ini berasal dari benih gigi pembentuk email yang berkembang liar. Umumnya orang terkena penyakit ini pada umur 30 tahun. Terjadinya tulang rahang.

Lipoma. Bisa tetjadi pada daerah mulut yang banyak lemaknya seperti pada bagian pipi dan dasar mulut.

Fiboma, bisa terjadi bibir, lidah, langit-langit dan gusi. Jaringan pembungkusnya lebih pucat dari sekelilingnya dan lebih keras.

Odontoma. Disini benih-benih gigi membentuk gigi -gigi kecil yang banyak terkumpul dalam satu kantung yang dindingnya terdiri dari jaringan ikat. Kantung terus membesar dengan bertambah banyaknya gigi kecil ini.

2. Tumor Ganas

Tumor bisa menjalar ke tempat lain misalnya, dari lidah bisa menjalar ke paru-paru. Walaupun sudah di buang dengan operasi, tumor ini dapat kambung kembali.

Contohn-contohnya:

Epithelioma, Tumor ini terjadi di mulut, umumnya menyerang bibir, tetapi sering juga mengenai lidah, dasar mulut, langit-langit , selaput pada pipi dan rahang. Paling banyak dijumpai pada bibir sebelah bawah dari orang yang sudah berumur lanjut. Tumor bisa menjalar ke tempat lain seperti kelenjar limfe pada rahang.

Kanker pada lidah.

Pasien penderita tumor ini biasanya mengatakan bahwa asal penyakitnya adalah karena lidahnya tergigit , tapi sebenarnya benjolan kanker tersebutlah yang mengakibatkan lidahnya tergigit. Kanker inipun cepat menyebar ke tempat lain. Disamping ke dua jenis tumor di atas dijumpai lagi pembengkakan yang besarnya sampai batas tertentu saja yang disebut tumor like.

Contohnya, Eksostosis (Tonjolan keluar dari tulang). Terjadi akibat beban yang berat dari gigi sehingga menimbulkan pertumbuhan tulang yang menonjolkan ke arah luar. (**)

< Pembengkakan yang terjadi dalam mulut yang bukan disebabkan oleh infeksi disebut tumor.

Tumor terbagi dua macam yaitu :

1. Tumor Jinak

Tumor ini tiam menjalar (metastase) hanya membesar pada tempat yang tumbuh saja. Tumor jinak ini terdiri dari:

Papiloma, dapat terjadi pada gusi,langit-langit ,lidah , dasar mulut, dan bibir. Bentuknua agak bulat dengan ukuran 2 sampai 5 mm. Papiloma ini lebih keras dari jaringan sekitarnya.

Ameloblastoma. Tumor ini berasal dari benih gigi pembentuk email yang berkembang liar. Umumnya orang terkena penyakit ini pada umur 30 tahun. Terjadinya tulang rahang.

Lipoma. Bisa tetjadi pada daerah mulut yang banyak lemaknya seperti pada bagian pipi dan dasar mulut.

Fiboma, bisa terjadi bibir, lidah, langit-langit dan gusi. Jaringan pembungkusnya lebih pucat dari sekelilingnya dan lebih keras.

Odontoma. Disini benih-benih gigi membentuk gigi -gigi kecil yang banyak terkumpul dalam satu kantung yang dindingnya terdiri dari jaringan ikat. Kantung terus membesar dengan bertambah banyaknya gigi kecil ini.

2. Tumor Ganas

Tumor bisa menjalar ke tempat lain misalnya, dari lidah bisa menjalar ke paru-paru. Walaupun sudah di buang dengan operasi, tumor ini dapat kambung kembali.

Contohn-contohnya:

Epithelioma, Tumor ini terjadi di mulut, umumnya menyerang bibir, tetapi sering juga mengenai lidah, dasar mulut, langit-langit , selaput pada pipi dan rahang. Paling banyak dijumpai pada bibir sebelah bawah dari orang yang sudah berumur lanjut. Tumor bisa menjalar ke tempat lain seperti kelenjar limfe pada rahang.

Kanker pada lidah.

Pasien penderita tumor ini biasanya mengatakan bahwa asal penyakitnya adalah karena lidahnya tergigit , tapi sebenarnya benjolan kanker tersebutlah yang mengakibatkan lidahnya tergigit. Kanker inipun cepat menyebar ke tempat lain. Disamping ke dua jenis tumor di atas dijumpai lagi pembengkakan yang besarnya sampai batas tertentu saja yang disebut tumor like.

Contohnya, Eksostosis (Tonjolan keluar dari tulang). Terjadi akibat beban yang berat dari gigi sehingga menimbulkan pertumbuhan tulang yang menonjolkan ke arah luar. (**)

benih gigi

2009-02-09T06:27:00.000-08:00

Anodontia

ANODONTIA, HYPODONTIA, OLIGODONTIA

Defenisi
Anodontia adalah suatu keadaan di mana semua benih gigi tidak terbentuk sama sekali, dan merupakan suatu kelainan yang sangat jarang terjadi. Anodontia dapat terjadi hanya pada periode gigi tetap/permanen, walaupun semua gigi sulung terbentuk dalam jumlah yang lengkap.
Sedangkan bila yang tidak terbentuk hanya beberapa gigi saja, keadaan tersebut disebut hypodontia atau oligodontia.

Gambar 1. Anodontia

Penyebab
Anodontia dan hypodontia kadang ditemukan sebagai bagian dari suatu sindroma, yaitu kelainan yang disertai dengan berbagai gejala yang timbul secara bersamaan, misalnya pada sindroma Ectodermal dysplasia. Hypodontia dapat timbul pada seseorang tanpa ada riwayat kelainan pada generasi keluarga sebelumnya, tapi bisa juga merupakan kelainan yang diturunkan.

Gejala
Anodontia ditandai dengan tidak terbentuknya semua gigi, dan lebih sering mengenai gigi-gigi tetap dibandingkan gigi-gigi sulung. Pada hypodontia, gigi-gigi yang paling sering tidak terbentuk adalah gigi premolar dua rahang bawah, insisif dua rahang atas, dan premolar dua rahang atas. Kelainan ini dapat terjadi hanya pada satu sisi rahang atau keduanya.

Gambar 2. Hampir seluruh gigi tidak terbentuk

Gambar 3. Hypodontia

Pemeriksaan
Diagnosa anodontia biasanya membutuhkan pemeriksaan radiografik untuk memastikan memang semua benih gigi benar-benar tidak terbentuk. Pada kasus hypodontia, pemeriksaan radiografik panoramik berguna untuk melihat benih gigi mana saja yang tidak terbentuk.

Perawatan
Lakukan konsultasi dengan dokter gigi sedini mungkin bila terdapat kecurigaan terjadinya kelainan ini. Perawatan yang biasanya diberikan oleh dokter gigi adalah pembuatan gigi tiruan.

Karang gigi

2009-01-16T15:02:00.000-08:00

KARANG GIGI

Hiiiiiiiy !

Karang gigi itu apa sih...?

Karang gigi (Calculus) merupakan kumpulan plak termineralisasi ( pembentukan mineral seperti "batukarang" ) yang menempel pada permukaan gigi.

Berdasarkan lokasinya, karang gigi ada di supragingiva (permukaan gigi diatas gusi) dan di subgingiva (permukaan gigi di bawah gusi).

Karang gigi terutama timbul pada daerah-daerah gigi yang sulit dibersihkan.

Akibat dari adanya karang gigi adalah......

Karang gigi ini menjadi tempat melekatnya kuman-kuman di dalam mulut.

Akibatnya dapat menyebabkan berbagai penyakit gusi, seperti radang gusi (gingivitis) yang ditandai dengan gusi tampak lebih merah, agak membengkak, dan sering berdarah saat menggosok gigi. Lihat gambar dibawah ini contoh gambaran dari Gingivitis.

Hal ini dapat berlanjut menjadi radang jaringan penyangga gigi lainnya (periodontitis) bila tidak segera dirawat. Bila sudah tahap ini dapat menimbulkan gigi goyang karena jaringan penyangga gigi sudah rusak. Lihat gambar dibawah ini contoh gambaran Periodontiti.

Juga yang tidak kalah sering terjadi, karang gigi dapat menyebabkan bau mulut tidak enak. Hal ini yang dirasa paling mengganggu.

Cara mengurangi timbulnya karang gigi adalah....

Terbentuknya karang gigi dapat pada semua orang, dan proses terbentuknya tidak dapat kita hindari namun dapat kita kurangi. Cara untuk mengurangi terbentuknya karang gigi adalah :

Pertama adalah dengan rajin menjaga kebersihan gigi, yaitu dengan menyikat gigi minimal dua kali sehari secara benar dimana semua bagian-bagian gigi tersikat bersih. Juga jangan lupa untuk menggosok gusi dengan lembut perlahan-lahan. Untuk gusi rahang atas, gerakan sikat gigi dari atas ke bawah, dan untuk gusi rahang bawah gerakan sikat gigi dari bawah ke atas. Hal ini dapat menghalangi terbentuknya karang gigi. (lihat 'Tips Menggosok gigi' )

Kedua adalah rajin kontrol ke dokter gigi setiap 6 bulan sekali untuk membersihkan karang gigi. Karena hanya dengan alat-alat kedokteran gigi saja karang gigi dapat dibersihkan.

Karang gigi tidak dapat hilang bila hanya dengan menggosok gigi atau berkumur dengan obat kumur.

Dokter gigi memiliki alat khusus untuk membersihkan karang gigi anda.

Amandel

2009-01-07T05:39:00.000-08:00

Amandel
Posted on Thursday, July 24, 2008 comments (11)
Labels: Dunia Medis Kita

Terima kasi sebelumnya untuk masukan rekan-rekan yang masih berkenan untuk membangun kesehatan gigi menjadi lebih baik. Mohon maaf sebesar-besarnya baru bisa posting. Kali ini saya akan membahas mengenai Amandel. Semoga bisa bermanfaat untuk kita semua. Beberapa pertanyaan yang ada dibenak kita seberapa bahaya penyakit ini? Sebenarnya amandel sendiri memang selalu ada pada setiap tubuh manusia, disini kita menyadari betapa menakjubkannya sistem tubuh manusia. Amandel sendiri merupakan salah satu sistem proteksi tubuh.

Amandel atau tonsil merupakan kumpulan jaringan limfoid yang terletak pada kerongkongan di belakang kedua ujung lipatan belakang mulut. Amandel sendiri berfungsi mencegah agar infeksi tidak menyebar ke seluruh tubuh dengan cara menahan kuman memasuki tubuh. Oleh karena itu kelenjar amndel ini meradang. Peradangan pada Kelenjar amandel ini disebut dengan tonsilitis, penyakit ini merupakan salah satu gangguan THT (Telinga Hidung & Tenggorokan). Tonsilitis dapat bersifat akut atau kronis. Bentuk akut yang tidak parah biasanya berlangsung sekitar 4-6 hari, dan umumnya menyerang anak-anak pada usia 5-10 tahun. Sedangkan radang amandel/tonsil yang kronis terjadi secara berulang-ulang dan berlangsung lama.

Pada radang amandel yang akut biasanya dimulai dengan gejala sakit tenggorokan yang ringan hingga menjadi parah, sakit saat menelan makanan, kadang-kadang muntah. Tonsilitis dapat menyebabkan amandel menjadi bengkak, panas, gatal, sakit pada otot dan sendi, nyeri pada seluruh badan, kedinginan, sakit kepala, dan sakit pada telinga. Kelenjar getah bening melemah di dalam daerah submandibuler. Bagian belakang tenggorokan akan terasa mengerut sehingga sukar menelan. Peradangan tonsil yang akut ataupun pembengkakan tonsil yang tidak terlalu besar dan tidak menghalangi jalan pernapasan, serta tidak menimbulkan komplikasi tidak perlu dilakukan pembedahan/operasi, karena tonsil yang terbuat dari jaringan getah bening dapat berfungsi mencegah tubuh agar tidak terkena penyakit yang berhubungan dengan infeksi.

Beberapa upaya yang dapat kita lakukan sendiri dirumah untuk pencegahan, perawatan dan pengobatannya dilakukan beberapa langkah sebagai berikut :

* Diusahakan untuk minum banyak air atau cairan seperti sari buah, terutama selama demam.
* Jangan minum es, sirop, es krim, makanan dan minuman yang didinginkan, gorengan, makanan awetan yang diasinkan, dan manisan.
* Berkumur air garam hangat 3-4 kali sehari.
* Menaruh kompres hangat pada leher setiap hari.
* diberikan terapi antibiotik (atas petunjuk dokter) apabila ada infeksi bakteri dan untuk mencegah komplikasi.
* Istirahat yang cukup.

Namun apabila radang amandel kronis dengan pembengkakan tonsil yang terlalu besar sehingga mengakibatkan terganggunya jalan pernapasan, atau munculnya komplikasi, biasanya diperlukan pembedahan/operasi untuk mengeluarkan tonsil. Apabila terjadi peradangan yang kronis disarankan untuk berkonsultasi kedokter spesialis THT untuk penanganan dan tidakan selanjutnya.

Mudah-mudahan bisa sedikit membantu :) Senang rasanya bisa ngeblog lagi :) sekali lagi saya minta maaf.

Kesehatan Gigi dan Mulut

2008-12-23T14:54:00.000-08:00

Kesehatan Gigi dan Mulut

Kelainan atau penyakit rongga mulut dan gigi merupakan salah satu dari 10 penyakit terbanyak di Puskesmas. Hampir sekitar 60% masyarakat Indonesia pernah mengalami gangguan pada gigi. Pada tahun 1980, ditemukan bahwa hampir 90% anak sekolah mempunyai kelainan gigi atau rongga mulut. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa kesehatan gigi dan rongga mulut perlu mendapatkan perhatian khusus.

Jaringan Rongga Mulut

Dalam rongga mulut, terdapat beberapa jaringan yang dibagi dalam 2 kelompok, yaitu :

Jaringan Keras (rahang atas, rahang bawah, dan gigi).
Jaringan Lunak (gusi, lidah, mukosa pipi, mukosa bibir, mukosa lidah, mukosa palatum, dan jaringan dasar lidah).

Fungsi Gigi

Secara histologis, jaringan gigi dan mulut berasal dari mesoderm dan ektoderm, yang memiliki 3 fungsi utama yaitu, pengunyahan (mastikasi), keindahan (estetika), dan berbicara (phonetic). Dalam mulut, gigi tertanam dalam tulang rahang dan dilindungi oleh gusi (gingiva), dengan bentuk yang berbeda – beda sesuai dengan fungsinya.

Gigi Seri (Incisivus)

Gigi ini letaknya berada di depan, dan berfungsi untuk memotong makanan (mastikasi). Jumlahnya ada 8, dengan pembagian 4 berada di rahang atas dan 4 berada di rahang bawah. Gigi seri susu mulai tumbuh pada bayi usia 4 – 6 bulan, kemudian diganti dengan gigi seri permanen pada usia 5 – 6 tahun pada rahang bawah dan pada usia 7 – 8 tahun pada rahang atas.

Gigi Taring (Caninus)

Posisi gigi ini terletak pada sudut mulut, di sebelah gigi seri, dan merupakan gigi yang paling panjang dalam rongga mulut. Fungsinya adalah untuk mengoyak makanan. Jumlahnya ada 4, dengan pembagian 2 ditiap rahang, 1 di kiri dan 1 di kanan. Gigi susu caninus ini diganti dengan gigi caninus permanen pada usia 11 – 13 tahun.

Gigi Geraham Kecil (Premolar)

Gigi ini jumlahnya 8, dengan pembagian 4 ditiap rahang, 2 di kiri dan 2 di kanan. Gigi ini hanya ada pada gigi dewasa, dan letaknya berada di belakang caninus. Tumbuh pada usia 10 – 11 tahun dan menggantikan posisi dari gigi molar susu. Bersama gigi molar, gigi ini berfungsi untuk melumatkan makanan, dan pada proses orthodontie, gigi ini sering “dikorbankan”.

Gigi Geraham (Molar)

Gigi molar susu berjumlah 8 seperti gigi premolar, kemudian lepas pada usia 10 – 11 tahun dan digantikan oleh gigi premolar. Sedangkan gigi molar permanen tumbuh di belakang gigi premolar setelah gigi molar susu lepas dan digantikan oleh gigi premolar. Jumlah dari gigi molar permanen adalah 12, dengan pembagian 6 di tiap rahang, 3 di tiap sisi kanan dan kiri. Gigi molar permanen inilah yang paling sering berlubang dan menyebabkan keluhan.

Proses Pertumbuhan Gigi

Dalam pertumbuhannya, gigi mengalami 2 fase pergantian. Diawali dari pertumbuhan gigi susu yang lengkap pada umur 3 tahun dengan jumlah 20 gigi, kemudian diganti dengan fase gigi tetap yang diawali pada usia 13 tahun keatas. Pertumbuhan gigi tetap ini menjadi lengkap setelah jumlah gigi menjadi 32 gigi, sekitar umur 17 – 21 tahun. Fase diantara awal fase gigi tetap sampai gigi tetap yang lengkap disebut fase gigi campuran, yaitu antara umur 13 – 17 tahun.

Gigi bungsu kenapa sih?

2008-12-21T06:21:00.000-08:00

Gigi bungsu kenapa sih?
Posted on Monday, April 28, 2008 comments (30)
Labels: GIGI

Dari beberapa pertanyaan yang masuk sering menanyakan mengapa sakit saat sibungsu tumbuh, apa memang harus sakit? Kebanyakan memang terasa sakit namun mengapa gigi bungsu harus tumbuh kalau hanya untuk membuat masalah. Mari kita bersama-sama menelusuri jejak langkah si bungsu yang selalau dipermasalahkan ini.

Pertumbuhan atau kemunculan gigi bungsu yang dalam dunia kedokteran gigi sering disebut dengan dens molaris inferior tertius atau molar ketiga ini memang kerap memberikan rasa sakit yang sangat menggangu aktifitas kita. Beberapa dari kita mungkin kurang paham akan gigi bungsu ini. mungkin saya dapet menjelaskan sedikit mengenai gigi bungsu ini.

Gigi bungsu adalah gigi geraham ketiga yang muncul pada usia sekitar 18-20 tahun.

Gigi bungsu termasuk dalam kategori struktur vestigial, yaitu struktur yang fungsi awalnya menjadi hilang atau berkurang sejalan dengan evolusi. Banyak ahli berpendapat bahwa perubahan jenis makanan pada manusia modern dari mentah menjadi dimasak membuat makanan lebih lunak. Selain itu, pemeliharaan gigi moderen mengalami kemajuan pesat. Akibatnya kerusakan pada gigi berkurang. Kehadiran gigi bungsu yang diperkirakan dapat membantu bila ada geraham lain yang tanggal menjadi tidak berguna, malah pada kebanyakan orang menjadi masalah.

Ada sejumlah faktor yang menyebabkan gigi mengalami impaksi. Karena jaringan sekitarnya yang terlalu padat, adanya retensi gigi susu yang berlebihan, tanggalnya gigi susu terlalu awal. Bisa juga karena tidak adanya tempat untuk erupsi. Rahang "kesempitan" gara-gara pertumbuhan tulang rahang kurang sempurna.

Ada teori lain. Pertumbuhan rahang dan gigi mempunyai tendensi bergerak maju ke arah depan. Apabila pergerakan ini terhambat oleh sesuatu yang merintangi, bisa terjadi impaksi gigi. Misalnya, karena infeksi, trauma, malposisi gigi, atau gigi susu tanggal sebelum waktunya.

Sementara, menurut teori Mendel, pertumbuhan rahang dan gigi dipengaruhi oleh faktor keturunan. Jika salah satu orang tua (ibu) mempunyai rahang kecil, dan bapak bergigi besar-besar, ada kemungkinan salah seorang anaknya berahang kecil dan bergigi besar-besar. Akibatnya, bisa terjadi kekurangan tempat erupsi gigi bungsu, dan terjadilah impaksi.

Sempitnya ruang erupsi gigi bungsu, menurut drg. Danardono, itu karena pertumbuhan rahangnya kurang sempurna. Hal ini bisa karena perubahan pola makan. Manusia sekarang cenderung menyantap makanan lunak, sehingga kurang merangsang pertumbuhan tulang rahang.

Makanan lunak yang mudah ditelan menjadikan rahang tak aktif mengunyah. Sedangkan makanan banyak serat perlu kekuatan rahang untuk mengunyah lebih lama. Proses pengunyahan lebih lama justru menjadikan rahang berkembang lebih baik. Seperti diketahui, sendi-sendi di ujung rahang merupakan titik tumbuh atau berkembangnya rahang. Kalau proses mengunyah kurang, sendi-sendi itu pun kurang aktif, sehingga rahang tidak berkembang semestinya. Rahang yang harusnya cukup untuk menampung 32 gigi menjadi sempit. Akibatnya, gigi bungsu yang selalu tumbuh terakhir itu tidak kebagian tempat untuk tumbuh normal. Ada yang tumbuh dengan posisi miring, atau bahkan "tidur" di dalam karena tidak ada tempat untuk nongol.

Maka, untuk mendukung perkembangan rahang, sebaiknya sering-sering mengkonsumsi makanan berserat supaya gigi jadi lebih aktif menggigit, memotong, dan mengunyah. Rahang pun menjadi makin aktif dan diharapkan akan tumbuh normal. Dampaknya, pertumbuhan gigi pun bisa lebih bagus. Tapi jangan lupa, periksakan gigi secara rutin untuk memantau kesehatan gigi.

Beberapa sumber memberikan definisi yang berbeda dan tanggapan yang berbeda tentang gigi bungsu ini, salah satu sumber yang membahas tentang masalah pada gigi bungu ini dapat saya kutipkan dan menurut saya lengkap menjelaskan masalah pada gigi bungsu ini dari wikipedia.

Masalah pada gigi bungsu

Gigi yang berdesakan

Karena gigi bungsu tumbuh paling akhir, terkadang rahang tidak memiliki tempat yang cukup untuk gigi bungsu tumbuh dengan wajar. Akibatnya gigi bungsu mendesak gigi geraham yang berada di depannya. Hal ini akan mengakibatkan sakit pada gigi. Masalah ini umumnya diatasi dengan mencabut gigi bungsu yang baru tumbuh. Bila gigi bungsu menempati posisi yang sulit untuk dicabut, yang dicabut adalah gigi geraham yang terdesak sehingga gigi bungsu mendapat tempat yang cukup untuk tumbuh.

Gigi yang tidak muncul sempurna pada gusi

Terkadang gigi bungsu tidak muncul dengan sempurna pada gusi. Gusi yang menutupi gigi dapat menyebabkan penumpukan sisa makanan dan bakteri yang dapat menyebabkan infeksi dan sakit pada gigi.

Pengobatan

Pencabutan

Sebelum dicabut, gigi umumnya akan difoto terlebih dahulu dengan sinar X untuk mengetahui bentuk, posisi dan kedalaman gigi. Pencabutan gigi bungsu biasanya dilakukan dengan pembiusan lokal, namun terkadang juga dilakukan dengan bius total. Walaupun tergolong operasi kecil, pencabutan gigi sebaiknya dilakukan secara profesional oleh dokter gigi, mengigat komplikasi yang mungkin timbul saat dan setelah pencabutan.

Hal yang perlu diperhatikan setelah pencabutan gigi

Untuk mempercepat proses penyembuhan:
Usahakan beristirahat sepanjang hari dan tidak mengerjakan pekerjaan berat.
Hindari merokok. Bila memungkinkan selama proses penyembuhan (3-4 hari), minimal selama 24 jam setelah operasi.
Hindari berkumur atau menggosok gigi selama 24 jam setelah operasi
Setelah 24 jam, kebersihan daerah operasi dapat dijaga dengan berkumur air hangat bergaram (1 sendok teh garam untuk 1 gelas air) minimal 4 kali sehari. Berkumurlah dengan hati-hati karena tekanan dapat menyebabkan lubang bekas operasi terbuka lagi dan terjadi pendarahan.
Setelah 24 jam, meggosok gigi dapat dilakukan dengan hati-hati, terutama di daerah operasi.
Bila diberi obat penahan sakit dan antibiotik, minumlah sesuai petunjuk dokter. Antibiotik harus dihabiskan walaupun gigi sudah tidak terasa sakit. Sebaliknya, obat penahan sakit dapat dihentikan bila sakit mereda.
Makan dan minumlah seperti biasanya. Hindari berdiet, karena makan dan minum yang cukup sangat penting untuk proses penyembuhan.
Hindari minum menggunakan sedotan karena tekanannya dapat melepaskan gumpalan darah pada lubang operasi.
Hindari minuman bersoda karena busanya diperkirakan dapat melepaskan gumpalan darah pada lubang operasi. Minuman jus buah terutama jeruk sangat disarankan.
Makan tambahan vitamin C dianjurkan.
Untuk menghindari pembengkakan, setelah operasi rahang sebaiknya dikompres dengan es atau air dingin. Tempelkan kompres dingin selama 15 menit, diseling 10 menit tanpa kompres, diulang sampai saat istirahat malam.
Pada hari-hari setelah hari operasi, rahang dapat dikompres dengan kompres hangat, untuk menstimulasi peredaran darah di daerah gigi bungsu yang dapat mempercepat penyembuhan.

Selain hal-hal di atas, pembiusan yang dilakukan sebelum operasi juga dapat berpengaruh pada kemampuan psikis dan mekanis. Jangan berkendara, melakukan pekerjaan yang membutuhkan konsentrasi tinggi, atau menandatangani dokumen penting pada hari yang sama. Bila menggunakan bius total, usahakan ada seseorang yang dapat menemani selama minimal satu hari tersebut.

Masalah yang mungkin timbul setelah pencabutan

Pendarahan

Pendarahan tidak dapat dihindari dan dapat berlangsung selama satu hari penuh. Berkumur pada saat pendarahan terjadi sangat tidak dianjurkan. Pendarahan akan berhenti saat darah mulai menggumpal di lubang pencabutan, dan berkumur dapat menyebabkan gumpalan darah terlepas. Hal ini dapat memperlambat proses penyembuhan dan menyebabkan pendarahan terjadi lebih lama.

Bila terjadi pendarahan, letakkan gulungan kecil kasa steril (umumnya diberikan oleh dokter gigi) pada lubang bekas pencabutan. Kasa harus digigit dengan baik dengan tekanan secukupnya. Cara ini akan membantu menghentikan pendarahan, tetapi jangan dilakukan telalu berlebihan sehingga menimbulkan iritasi pada lubang pencabutan. Gulungan kasa hanya boleh digigit selama sekitar 20 menit. Bila terlalu lama, darah dapat membeku pada kasa dan gumpalan darah dapat terlepas lagi saat kasa dibuang. Bila pendarahan masih terjadi setelah 20 menit, ganti dengan kasa yang baru. Demikian seterusnya hingga pedarahan berkurang atau berhenti.

Bila pendarahan terus berlanjut setelah 1 hari, segera kembali ke dokter gigi dan laporkan. Pendarahan yang terus menerus menunjukkan masalah pada proses penyembuhan.

Lubang operasi tidak tertutup sempurna (Dry socket)

Pada umumnya, setelah gigi bungsu dicabut, darah akan menggenangi lubang bekas gigi dan menggumpal. Terbentuknya gumpalan darah ini sangat penting karena berfungsi sebagai tempat gusi kemudian akan tumbuh menutupi lubang. Diperkirakan sebanyak 5-10% kasus mengalami penutupan lubang yang tidak sempurna atau terlepasnya gumpalan darah sebelum waktunya, sehingga syaraf pada gusi dan bahkan tulang rahang menjadi terbuka (dry socket). Telah diketahui bahwa umumnya penderita dry socket adalah perempuan yang minum pil kontrasepsi. Diperkirakan dry socket dapat dihindari dengan melakukan operasi pada hari ke-22 hingga ke-28 siklus, yaitu saat kadar estrogen sedang pada titik terendah.

Infeksi

Infeksi yang terjadi saat proses penyembuhan dapat dihindari dengan minum antibiotik dan menjaga kebersihan mulut. Berkumur dengan air garam setiap selesai makan dapat membantu membersihkan daerah operasi.

Semoga dapet membantu, artikel ini saya buat dengan mengkutip beberap artikel dari wikipedia dan ilmu yang saya dapatkan dibangku kuliah, semoga sehat selalu.

Kaitan berus gigi dengan serangan jantung?

2008-12-18T11:40:00.000-08:00

Friday, December 19, 2008
Kaitan berus gigi dengan serangan jantung?

Aku : Dah berus gigike belum?

Teman : Belum..

Aku : Pergilah berus.. bahaya tu.

Teman : Bahaya... apa yang bahaya?

Aku : Bahaya... nanti kau kena serangan jantung.

Teman : Serangan jantung!!! Betulke?

Aku tersenyum melihat teman terpinga-pinga. Antara percaya dengan tidak.

Aku memberikan satu artikel kepadanya. Lantas dibacanya dengan penuh minat…

Menurut Pensyarah Jabatan Periodontologi, Fakulti Pergigian Universiti Carolina Utara, Profesor Ray William, kajian klinikal membuktikan bahawa banyak kes serangan jantung juga berlaku kepada individu yang kurang memberi penjagaan pada kebersihan mulut.

Menurut Prof. Ray William, bakteria dalam mulut boleh merebak ke organ lain melalui salur darah. Kehadiran bakteria merangsang sistem imun badan untuk bertindak balas bagi menghapuskannya. Kesan tindak balas ini boleh menyebabkan keradangan, terutama pada sistem kardiovaskular (jantung) dengan menebalkan dinding salur darah. Keadaan ini lama kelamaan menyebabkan salur darah menjadi sempit dan serangan jantungpun boleh berlaku.

Malah dalam kajian lainpun terdapat para penyelidik yang turut mengaitkan kehadiran bakteria dalam mulut juga boleh menyebabkan seseorang itu terkena serangan strok, kencing manis, kelahiran tak cukup bulan dan bayi lahir tidak cukup berat.

Aku lihat teman aku itu mengerutkan dahinya...

Aku terus tersenyum… "hai teman, jangan banyak fikir. Cepat! pergi berus gigi tu.. hehe"

Posted by Rashid at 19.12.08

karies dan diet

2008-12-18T10:58:00.000-08:00

Karies dan Diet
Posted on Thursday, August 07, 2008 comments (28)
Labels: Dunia Medis Kita

Karies merupakan salah satu penyakit gigi dan mulut yang disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor, saya rasa sudah perbah saya bahas dan dipostingan sebelumnya anda akan lebih jelas mengenai karies :). Diet salah satu trend anak muda sekarang terutama bagi para remaja putri yang ingin tampil lebih PD dan menjaga kelangsingan tubuhnya. Namun apa hubungan antara karies dan diet ya? disini saya akan coba menjelaskan sedikit.

Pada dasarnya hubungan antara karies dan diet sangat simpel dan mudah untuk dimengerti, beberapa orang yang menjalani diet sehat dan berprilaku hidup sehat akan mengalami penurunan masalah gigi. mengapa demikian, hal ini dikarenakan konsumsi gula pada tubuh dikurangi dan lebih banyak mengkonsumsi bahan atau makanan dengan pemanis alami seperti buah-buahan yang sangat baik bagi tubuh maupun bagi kesehatan gigi dan mulut. Apabila kita mengkonsumsi buah-buahan seperti apel, apel secara tidak langsung akan membantu membersihkan gigi secara alami bisa diibaratkan kita menggosok gigi, nah sangat dianjurkan untuk menu penutup menggunakan apel atau ganti snak anda dengan buah - buahan. Selain gigi dan mulut kita sehat maka badan kita tetap langsing :).

Hubungan antara diet dan karies erat sekali kaitannya dengan jumlah konsumsi pemanis atau gula yang dikonsumsi oleh tubuh kita, sebenarnya Tuhan telah menciptakan gigi dan mulut kita sebagai gerbang dan peringatan yang sangat luar biasa. bagai mana tidak, apabila makanan yang kita konsumsi tidak baik bagi tubuh atau merugikan maka gelaja yang nampak akan terlihat pada daerah disekitar rongga mulut seperti : Amandel, sariawan, bibir pecah - pecah, karies, sakit tenggorokan dan lain - lain. maka kenali makanan yang anda konsumsi. Sangat dianjurkan untuk kembali ke pola hidup sederhana dan kembali ke alam. Saran saya mulai sekarang tinggalkan makanan dengan bahan kimia dan kembalilah Natural.

Sekedar tambahan:
Ingat pengolahan masakan dengan MSG mengidikasikan pembuat makanan kurang cakap mengolah bahan masakan dengan paduan bumbu - bumbu yang tersedia. apabila seorang koki atau tukang masak bisa mengolah bahan makanan dan bumbunya tidak perlu ditambah bahan penyedap.

Gosok Gigi

2008-12-03T14:57:00.000-08:00

Wednesday, December 3, 2008
Gosok Gigi
Aku tersadar dari tidur. Hal pertama yang kuingat adalah belum gosok gigi sebelum tidur tadi. Ah terang saja, aku memang belum berniat tidur. Tadi itu ketiduran, posisiku pun masih di depan TV, bukan nonton tapi ditonton TV.

Sudah jam 1 pagi. Dan melewatkan ritual gosok gigi sebelum tidur dijamin bakal bikin runyam. Tidurku sudah pasti nyapnyap. Aku mencoba memanipulasi diri, membuat penawaran-penawaran (tak) penting.

- gosok giginya absen aja, toh seharian tadi udah dua kali
+ tapi kan, abis gosok gigi kedua aku makan lagi

tawaran pertama gagal!

- ntar lagi pagi, gosok gigi pagi2 kan bisa. sekarang tidur aja
+ aduuuh gigiku bisa rusak, masih ada sisa makanan di gigiku. sambal tempe, tumis kapri, dan biskuit coklat (menunya ga matching gini :P)

tawaran kedua gagal!

Arrrgghhh aku ngantuuuuk dan gagal memanipulasi diri. Tempat gosok gigi dua meter jaraknya dari ruang TV. Aku harus sampai di sana sesegera mungkin. Ah, apa mau dikata. Ayo bangun! Gosok gigi!

Kalau lagi begini aku langsung ingat ibu, nasehatnya yang membuatku jadi begini. Mungkin dulu ibu menyusupkan mantra-mantra sakti supaya ajarannya meresap sedalam ini pada diriku. Sampai-sampai aku tidak bisa melewatkan kebiasaan remeh macam begini, bahkan di saat ngantuuuuuk seperti ini.

Hahhh. Sudahhhh. Bereshhhh. Bersihhh. Seghhhar...

Aku harus menelepon ibu nanti. memintanya menurunkan tips dan trik menanamkan kebiasaan gosok gigi pada anak. Aku harus sesakti ibu, bikin anakku sulit berkelit dari urusan gosok-menggosok gigi. Kalau perlu biar seperti aku, mendadak bangun cuma buat gosok gigi. cape deeee.

Melihat Penyakit Melalui Gigi

2008-12-03T14:55:00.001-08:00

Rabu, 2008 Desember 03
Melihat Penyakit Melalui Gigi
Meropong Penyakit Melalui Gigi
Tahukah Anda bahwa gejala awal penyakit diabetes, jantung, atau leukemia, bisa diketahui lewat kondisi gigi dan mulut. Jika mata bisa mengungkapkan isi hati seseorang, mulut juga bisa buka rahasia. Ketua Umum Pengurus Besar Persatuan Dokter Gigi Indonesia (PDGI), drg H Emmyr F Moeis, MARS mengatakan, kondisi gigi dan mulut bisa mengungkapkan gejala-gejala awal penyakit berbahaya bahkan sampai memprediksi kelahiran prematur.

Menurut Emmyr F Moeis, salah satu tanda gejala diabetes adalah penyakit gigi dan gusi yang berlebihan. Penderita diabetes cenderung memiliki penyakit mulut 3-4 kali lebih sering ketimbang orang yang tidak mengidap diabetes. Penderita diabetes umumnya mudah terluka saat menyikat gigi atau menggunakan benang pembersih gigi. Gigi penderita diabetes juga umumnya mengalami abses.

Hal itu bisa terjadi karena penderita diabetes umumnya mengalami kerusakan sel darah putih. Padahal sel darah putih sangat diperlukan untuk melawan bakteri penyebab infeksi di mulut. Selain masalah gusi, diabetes juga mengakibatkan mulut kering, sariawan, dan mulut panas.

Bau mulut seseorang juga bisa mengungkapkan apakah seseorang memiliki kecenderungan gula darah tinggi. Bau tersebut biasa disebut acetone breath bau manis yang dapat segera dikenali dokter gigi sebagai tanda-tanda seseorang mengidap diabetes.

Lain lagi dengan bau mulut tak sedap penderita diabetes, bau mulut yang berbeda juga dapat mengindikasikan seseorang sedang mengalami infeksi hidung, mulut, paru-paru, atau perut.

Penelitian yang dilakukan American Dental Association sebagaimana dilansir Webmd, menyebutkan, osteoporosis atau penyakit rapuh tulang dan tanggalnya gigi sangat berhubungan. Jika seseorang mengalami Osteoporosis maka ia mengalami penurunan kepadatan tulang. Akibatkan terjadi cedera pada pinggul dan beberapa bagian tubuh lainnya yang disanggah tulang. Proses ini juga mempengaruhi kokohnya rahang dan gigi.

Pada wanita, ada tiga empat momen di mana seseorang lebih berisiko terhadap penyakit mulut. Pertama, saat setelah menopause, ketika masa puber, pada saat hamil, dan sekitar masa menstruasi setiap bulannya. Pada masa-masa itu, hormon tertentu akan meningkat sehingga memicu proses-proses peradangan dan membuat mulut lebih rentan terhadap bakteri.

Ditemukannya terapi estrogen bisa membantu mengatasi masalah ini. Terapi ini bisa membantu mengurangi tingkat kerapuhan gigi dan radang gusi.

Penelitian terbaru membandingkan kesehatan mulut 256 pasien jantung dewasa dengan 250 pasien lain tanpa penyakit jantung. Hasilnya, salah satu penanda awal sakit jantung adalah pericoronitis atau infeksi gusi di sekitar gigi geraham. Biasanya gigi akan membusuk sehingga hanya menyisakan ujung kecil di akarnya. Pastinya penyakit ini juga disertai radang gusi, radang lainnya di mulut, dan tanggalnya gigi.

Hal itu diduga karena bakteri yang ditemukan di mulut merupakan bakteri yang sama sebagai penyebab atherosclerotic plaque (kelainan pada pembuluh darah yang disertai plak dan tidak elastis) yang berhubungan dengan penyakit jantung.

Penelitian lain membuktikan, wanita yang mengalami gangguan gusi selama masa kehamilan, 7 kali lebih berisiko mengalami kelahiran prematur. Tak hanya prematur, bayi yang dilahirkan juga umumnya lebih kecil dari rata-rata.

Hal itu disebabkan ketika seseorang mengalami gangguan mulut, peradangan yang terjadi menyebab beberapa zat tertentu dilepaskan ke aliran darah sehingga bisa mempengaruhi berat tubuh bayi dan proses persalinan. Studi lain menyebutkan, membersihkan plak dan tartar secara teratur bisa mengurangi risiko persalinan prematur.

Penderita Leukimia umumnya memiliki gusi yang memerah, meradang, dan lembek. Nah, dengan membuka mulut lebar-lebar setidaknya anda bisa mengantisipasi beberapa gejala awal penyakit berbahaya. Tapi, jangan tarik kesimpulan sendiri. "Segera konsultasikan ke dokter jika mengalami gejala-gejala seperti tersebut di atas," ujarnya.

Kampanye Pencegahan

Melihat pentingnya kesehatan gigi dan mulut, mendorong PB PDGI bekerja sama dengan PT Pfizer Indonesia menggelar "Kampanye pencegahan dan perawatan kesehatan gigi dan mulut" di Indonesia. Upaya yang dilakukan, antara lain, program sekolah di DKI Jakarta , dental mobile unit program, semiloka dan workshop terkait dengan profesi kedokteran gigi, dan partisipasi pada Asia Pasific Dental Congress.

"Hasil Survei Rumah Tangga 2004 menyebutkan 39 persen penduduk Indonesia menderita penyakit gigi dan mulut. Angka itu bukan merupakan angka yang dapat diabaikan karena telah terbukti bahwa penyakit gigi dan mulut dapat secara signifikan mempengaruhi produktivitas masyarakat. Karena itu, perlu dilakukan suatu kampanye yang terus menerus untuk menurunkan angka penderita penyakit gigi dan mulut," katanya.

Ada 4 anjuran pokok yang akan disampaikan kepada masyarakat, yaitu, pertama, sikat gigi 2 kali sehari dengan pasta gigi ber-flouride, terutama sesudah makan pagi dan sebelum tidur. Kedua, ganti sikat gigi 2-3 bulan sekali. Ketiga, kunjungi dokter gigi secara teratur minimal 2 kali setahu dan memiliki dental record. Keempat, kurangi makan makanan dan minuman yang mengandung gula.

Hasil studi morbiditas SKRT (Survei Kesehatan Rumah Tangga)-Surkenas (survei Kesehatan Nasional) 2001 menunjukkan, dari 10 kelompok penyakit terbanyak yang dikeluhkan masyarakat, penyakit gigi dan mulut menduduki urutan pertama (60 persen). Hasil surkenas 1998 menunjukan bahwa 62,4 persen penduduk merasa terganggu produktivitas kerja/sekolah karena sakit gigi, selama rata-rata 3,86 hari.

Secara umum penyakit gigi yang dikeluhkan masyarakat adalah karies gigi dan penyakit gusi. Hasil studi SKRT 2001, menyatakan, 52,3 persen penduduk usia 10 tahun ke atas mengalami karies gigi yang belum ditangani. Prevalensi karies umur 10 tahun ke atas adalah 71,2 persen, dengan catatan bahwa prevalensi karies lebih tinggi pada umur lebih tinggi, pada pendidikan lebih rendah, serta pada status ekonomi lebih rendah. Penduduk usia 10 tahun ke atas, 46 persen mengalami penyakit gusi, prevalensi semakin tinggi pada umur yang lebih tinggi.

Hal yang memprihatinkan dalam SKRT 2001 adalah motivasi untuk menambal gigi masih sangat rendah yaitu 4-5 persen, sementara besarnya kerusakan yang belum ditangani di mana memerlukan penambalan dan atau pencabutan mencapai 82,5 persen. Diketahui berdasarkan SKRT 2001, rata-rata 16 gigi dicabut pada umur 65 tahun ke atas.

Penyakit periodontal (radang jaringan pendukung gigi) merupakan penyakit gigi dan mulut lain yang banyak dikeluhkan (70 persen). Sementara 5 persennya dikategorikan lanjut yang dapat menyebabkan gigi goyang dan lepas, saat ini banyak ditemukan pada penduduk usia muda. Salah satu faktor penyebab penyakit ini adalah karang gigi yang dijumpai pada 46 persen penduduk.

Kondisi itu menggambarkan, pelayanan kesehatan gigi baru ditangani pada kondisi penyakit yang sudah dalam keadaan parah. Hal itu disebabkan, antara lain masih kurangnya kesadaran masyarakat mengenai arti penting menjaga kesehatan gigi dan mulut, ketidaktahuan, mahalnya biaya. "Serta yang perlu diperhatikan oleh PDGI, adalah banyaknya dokter gigi yang cenderung pasif serta masih memberikan porsi yang besar pada tindakan kuratif," ujar Emmyr.

Hal lain yang menjadi perhatian PDGI adalah rasio dokter gigi terhadap penduduk yang masih rendah, yaitu 1:21.500, masih jauh dari rasio ideal yaitu 1:2000. Untuk itu, bersama Kolegium Kedokteran Gigi Indonesia, PDGI mendorong terbentuknya Fakultas Kedokteran Gigi baru, terutama di Indonesia bagian barat, mengingat data Depkes menyatakan bahwa rasio dokter gigi terhadap puskesmas di Indonesia bagian barat lebih tinggi daripada bagian timur. Di provinsi Sumut misalnya, rasio dokter gigi terhadap puskesmas 0,82, bandingkan dengan NTT yang 0,27 atau bahkan Papua mencapai 0,21.

Dengan kondisi seperti itu, Emmyr menilai perlu didorong sikap kemandirian masyarakat, terutama tindakan preventif yang dapat dilakukan setiap individu, keluarga, serta lingkungan terkecil di masyarakat.

Sikap kemandirian itu perlu didorong terus-menerus melalui berbagi upaya dan kegiatan yang berkesinambungan. Namun, upaya itu tidak saja oleh pihak organisasi profesi tetapi akan lebih optimal jika melibatkan pihak-pihak lain yang mempunyai kompetensi dan kepentingan yang sama dalam hal peningkatan derajat kesehatan gigi dan mulut di Indonesia
Diposkan oleh Galih Gumelar Center di 10:53

Melihat Penyakit Melalui Gigi

2008-12-03T14:55:00.000-08:00

gigi

2008-12-01T10:21:00.000-08:00

GIGI Ajak Kita Meniti “Jalan Kebenaran”
2008-08-21 08:35:30 - Ramadhan tahun 2008 ini GIGI meluncurkan “Jalan Kebenaran”, album religinya yang ke 4. Berbeda dengan 3 album sebelumnya di mana GIGI banyak membawakan lagu orang dengan aransemen ala GIGI, di album b... - selengkapnya

setelah ami 2008.... kini apm 2008
3 penghargaan ami awards 2008 untuk gigi
"konser peace, love 'n respect" kenapa 11 januari, kenapa jogja?
lewatlah sudah masa itu.....
Navigasi Berita » 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

GIGI MANAGEMENT (POS entertainment) :
Jl. Tebet Dalam IV E No.65 JAKARTA 1280
Tel. 021 8315858 - 8315939
Fax. 021 8355956
email : management@gigionline.com

gigikit@ fansclub :
Jl. H.O.S. Cokroaminoto 12 JAKARTA 10350
Tel. 021 3904404 /Fax. 021 2301581
merchandising : 081809506161
email fansclub : gigikita@gigionline.com
email merchandising : merchandise@gigionline.com

©2005 - 2008 Gigionline.com | CSS Valid | XHTML 1.0 valid
graphic by dedidude, html|css|backend by godote

Tooth

2008-12-01T10:17:00.000-08:00

Tooth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Teeth" redirects here. For the film, see Teeth (film).
Teeth

An adult human's teeth.

CGI posterior view of teeth taken from inside mouth
Dorlands/Elsevier Tooth
Teeth (singular, Tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or defense. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness.

Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing. Carnivores, on the other hand, need canines to kill and tear meat.

Mammals are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby," "milk," "primary" or "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.

Some animals develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont) while others develop many sets (polyphyodont). Sharks, for example, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, maintaining relatively constant length. Many rodents, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig[verification needed], have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[1][2]

Contents [hide]
1 Anatomy
2 Parts
2.1 Enamel
2.2 Dentin
2.3 Cementum
2.4 Pulp
3 Development
4 Eruption
5 Supporting structures
5.1 Periodontal ligaments
5.2 Alveolar bone
5.3 Gingiva
6 Tooth decay
6.1 Plaque
6.2 Caries (Cavities)
7 Tooth care
8 Restorations
9 Abnormalities
9.1 Digestive
9.1.1 Alteration during tooth development
9.1.2 Destruction after development
9.1.3 Discoloration
9.1.4 Alteration of eruption
9.2 Developmental
9.2.1 Abnormality in number
9.2.2 Abnormality in size
9.2.3 Abnormality in shape
9.2.4 Abnormality in structure
10 Non-human animals
11 See also
11.1 Lists
12 References
13 External links

Anatomy

A third molar.Main article: Dental anatomy
The bottom teeth are used more for the grinding of food and the top front teeth are mainly used for biting.

Dental anatomy is a field of anatomy dedicated to the study of tooth structures. The development, appearance, and classification of teeth fall within its field of study, though dental occlusion, or contact among teeth, does not. Dental anatomy is also a taxonomical science as it is concerned with the naming of teeth and their structures. This information serves a practical purpose for dentists, enabling them to easily identify teeth and structures during treatment.

The anatomic crown of a tooth is the area covered in enamel above the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[3] The majority of the crown is composed of dentin with the pulp chamber in the center.[4] The crown is within bone before eruption.[5] After eruption, it is almost always visible. The anatomic root is found below the cementoenamel junction and is covered with cementum. As with the crown, dentin composes most of the root, which normally have pulp canals. A tooth may have multiple roots or just one root. Canines and most premolars, except for maxillary (upper) first premolars, usually have one root. Maxillary first premolars and mandibular molars usually have two roots. Maxillary molars usually have three roots. Additional roots are referred to as supernumerary roots.

Models of human teeth as they exist within the alveolar bone.Humans usually have 20 primary teeth (also called deciduous, baby, or milk teeth) and 32 permanent teeth. Among primary teeth, 10 are found in the (upper) maxilla and the other 10 in the (lower) mandible. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, and molars. In the primary set of teeth, there are two types of incisors, centrals and laterals, and two types of molars, first and second. All primary teeth are replaced with permanent counterparts except for molars, which are replaced by permanent premolars. Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla with the other 16 in the mandible. The maxillary teeth are the maxillary central incisor, maxillary lateral incisor, maxillary canine, maxillary first premolar, maxillary second premolar, maxillary first molar, maxillary second molar, and maxillary third molar. The mandibular teeth are the mandibular central incisor, mandibular lateral incisor, mandibular canine, mandibular first premolar, mandibular second premolar, mandibular first molar, mandibular second molar, and mandibular third molar. Third molars are commonly called "wisdom teeth" and may never erupt into the mouth or form at all. If any additional teeth form, for example, fourth and fifth molars, which are rare, they are referred to as supernumerary teeth.[6]

Most teeth have identifiable features that distinguish them from others. There are several different notation systems to refer to a specific tooth. The three most commons systems are the FDI World Dental Federation notation, the universal numbering system, and Palmer notation method. The FDI system is used worldwide, and the universal is used widely in the United States.

Parts

Section of a human molar
Enamel
Main article: Tooth enamel
Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body and is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.[7] It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material composing the rest.[8] The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[9]

Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate.[10] The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness.[11] Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support.[10] Unlike dentin and bone, enamel does not contain collagen. Instead, it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions.[12]

Dentin
Main article: Dentin
Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber. It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp.[13] The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis. The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70% inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10% water by weight.[14] Because it is softer than enamel, it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated, but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth.

Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. Dentin has microscopic channels, called dentinal tubules, which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border.[15] The diameter of these tubules range from 2.5 μm near the pulp, to 1.2 μm in the midportion, and 900 nm near the dentino-enamel junction.[16] Although they may have tiny side-branches, the tubules do not intersect with each other. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined.

Cementum
Main article: Cementum
Cementum is a specialized bony substance covering the root of a tooth.[13] It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root.[17] The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.[18]

Pulp
Main article: Pulp (tooth)
The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue.[14] This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root.[19] Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts, which initiate the formation of dentin.[14] Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts, preodontoblasts, macrophages and T lymphocytes.[20] The pulp is commonly called "the nerve" of the tooth.

Development
Main article: Tooth development

Radiograph of lower right third, second, and first molars in different stages of development.Tooth development is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells, grow, and erupt into the mouth. Although many diverse species have teeth, non-human tooth development is largely the same as in humans. For human teeth to have a healthy oral environment, enamel, dentin, cementum, and the periodontium must all develop during appropriate stages of fetal development. Primary (baby) teeth start to form between the sixth and eighth weeks in utero, and permanent teeth begin to form in the twentieth week in utero.[21] If teeth do not start to develop at or near these times, they will not develop at all.

A significant amount of research has focused on determining the processes that initiate tooth development. It is widely accepted that there is a factor within the tissues of the first branchial arch that is necessary for the development of teeth.[22]

Tooth development is commonly divided into the following stages: the bud stage, the cap, the bell, and finally maturation. The staging of tooth development is an attempt to categorize changes that take place along a continuum; frequently it is difficult to decide what stage should be assigned to a particular developing tooth.[22] This determination is further complicated by the varying appearance of different histologic sections of the same developing tooth, which can appear to be different stages.

The tooth bud (sometimes called the tooth germ) is an aggregation of cells that eventually forms a tooth. It is organized into three parts: the enamel organ, the dental papilla and the dental follicle.[23] The enamel organ is composed of the outer enamel epithelium, inner enamel epithelium, stellate reticulum and stratum intermedium.[23] These cells give rise to ameloblasts, which produce enamel and the reduced enamel epithelium. The growth of cervical loop cells into the deeper tissues forms Hertwig's Epithelial Root Sheath, which determines a tooth's root shape. The dental papilla contains cells that develop into odontoblasts, which are dentin-forming cells.[23] Additionally, the junction between the dental papilla and inner enamel epithelium determines the crown shape of a tooth.[24] The dental follicle gives rise to three important entities: cementoblasts, osteoblasts, and fibroblasts. Cementoblasts form the cementum of a tooth. Osteoblasts give rise to the alveolar bone around the roots of teeth. Fibroblasts develop the periodontal ligaments which connect teeth to the alveolar bone through cementum.[25]

Eruption
Main article: Tooth eruption
Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age. These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts. This stage, during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth, is known as the mixed stage. The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth.

There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption. One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth.[26] Another, known as the cushioned hammock theory, resulted from microscopic study of teeth, which was thought to show a ligament around the root. It was later discovered that the "ligament" was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide.[27] Currently, the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process.[28]

The onset of primary tooth loss has been found to correlate strongly with somatic and psychological criteria of school readiness.[29][30]

Supporting structures

Histologic slide of tooth erupting into the mouth.
A: tooth
B: gingiva
C: bone
D: periodontal ligamentsThe periodontium is the supporting structure of a tooth, helping to attach the tooth to surrounding tissues and to allow sensations of touch and pressure.[31] It consists of the cementum, periodontal ligaments, alveolar bone, and gingiva. Of these, cementum is the only one that is a part of a tooth. Periodontal ligaments connect the alveolar bone to the cementum. Alveolar bone surrounds the roots of teeth to provide support and creates what is commonly called an alveolus, or "socket". Lying over the bone is the gingiva or gum, which is readily visible in the mouth.

Periodontal ligaments
The periodontal ligament is a specialized connective tissue that attaches the cementum of a tooth to the alveolar bone. This tissue covers the root of the tooth within the bone. Each ligament has a width of 0.15 - 0.38 mm, but this size decreases over time.[32] The functions of the periodontal ligaments include attachment of the tooth to the bone, support for the tooth, formation and resorption of bone during tooth movement, sensation, and eruption.[33] The cells of the periodontal ligaments include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, fibroblasts, macrophages, cementoblasts, and epithelial cell rests of Malassez.[34] Consisting of mostly Type I and III collagen, the fibers are grouped in bundles and named according to their location. The groups of fibers are named alveolar crest, horizontal, oblique, periapical, and interradicular fibers.[35] The nerve supply generally enters from the bone apical to the tooth and forms a network around the tooth toward the crest of the gingiva.[36] When pressure is exerted on a tooth, such as during chewing or biting, the tooth moves slightly in its socket and puts tension on the periodontal ligaments. The nerve fibers can then send the information to the central nervous system for interpretation.

Alveolar bone
The alveolar bone is the bone of the jaw which forms the alveolus around teeth.[37] Like any other bone in the human body, alveolar bone is modified throughout life. Osteoblasts create bone and osteoclasts destroy it, especially if force is placed on a tooth.[31] As is the case when movement of teeth is attempted through orthodontics, an area of bone under compressive force from a tooth moving toward it has a high osteoclast level, resulting in bone resorption. An area of bone receiving tension from periodontal ligaments attached to a tooth moving away from it has a high number of osteoblasts, resulting in bone formation.

Gingiva
The gingiva ("gums") is the mucosal tissue that overlays the jaws. There are three different types of epithelium associated with the gingiva: gingival, junctional, and sulcular epithelium. These three types form from a mass of epithelial cells known as the epithelial cuff between the tooth and the mouth.[38] The gingival epithelium is not associated directly with tooth attachment and is visible in the mouth. The junctional epithelium, composed of the basal lamina and hemidesmosomes, forms an attachment to the tooth.[33] The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue on the gingiva which touches but is not attached to the tooth.[39] This leaves a small potential space between the gingiva and tooth which can collect bacteria, plaque, and calculus.

Tooth decay

Plaque
Main article: Dental plaque
Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of various bacteria that form on teeth.[40] If not removed regularly, plaque buildup can lead to dental cavities (caries) or periodontal problems such as gingivitis. Given time, plaque can mineralize along the gingiva, forming tartar. The microorganisms that form the biofilm are almost entirely bacteria (mainly streptococcus and anaerobes), with the composition varying by location in the mouth.[41] Streptococcus mutans is the most important bacteria associated with dental caries.

Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods, especially sugars and starches. In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid, which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel.[13][42] This process, known as "demineralisation", leads to tooth destruction. Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH. This causes 'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria.

Caries (Cavities)

Advanced tooth decay on a premolar.Main article: Dental caries
Dental caries, also described as "tooth decay" or "dental cavities", is an infectious disease which damages the structures of teeth.[43] The disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Dental caries has a long history, with evidence showing the disease was present in the Bronze, Iron, and Middle ages but also prior to the neolithic period.[44] The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with diet changes.[44][45] Today, caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. In the United States, dental caries is the most common chronic childhood disease, being at least five times more common than asthma.[46] Countries that have experienced an overall decrease in cases of tooth decay continue to have a disparity in the distribution of the disease.[47] Among children in the United States and Europe, 60-80% of cases of dental caries occur in 20% of the population.[48]

Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.[49][50] The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.[51]

Tooth care

Toothbrushes are commonly used to clean teeth.Main article: Oral hygiene
Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth clean and is a means of preventing dental caries, gingivitis, periodontal disease, bad breath, and other dental disorders. It consists of both professional and personal care. Regular cleanings, usually done by dentists and dental hygienists, remove tartar (mineralized plaque) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, using various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from teeth.

The purpose of cleaning teeth is to remove plaque, which consists mostly of bacteria.[52] Healthcare professionals recommend regular brushing twice a day (in the morning and in the evening, or after meals) in order to prevent formation of plaque and tartar.[51] A toothbrush is able to remove most plaque, excepting areas between teeth. As a result, flossing is also considered a necessity to maintain oral hygiene. When used correctly, dental floss removes plaque from between teeth and at the gum line, where periodontal disease often begins and could develop caries. Electric toothbrushes are not considered more effective than manual brushes for most people.[53] The most important advantage of electric toothbrushes is their ability to aid people with dexterity difficulties, such as those associated with rheumatoid arthritis.

In addition, fluoride therapy is often recommended to protect against dental caries, water fluoridation and fluoride supplements decrease the incidence of dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent dental decay by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel.[54] The incorporated fluoride makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and thus more resistant to decay.[55] Topical fluoride, such as a fluoride toothpaste or mouthwash, is also recommended to protect teeth surfaces. Many dentists include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine cleanings.

Restorations
After a tooth has been damaged or destroyed, restoration of the missing structure can be achieved with a variety of treatments. Restorations may be created from a variety of materials, including glass ionomer, amalgam, gold, porcelain, and composite.[56] Small restorations placed inside a tooth are referred to as "intracoronal restorations". These restorations may be formed directly in the mouth or may be cast using the lost-wax technique, such as for some inlays and onlays. When larger portions of a tooth are lost, an "extracoronal restoration" may be fabricated, such as a crown or a veneer, to restore the involved tooth.

Picture of a restored premolar.When a tooth is lost, dentures, bridges, or implants may be used as replacements.[57] Dentures are usually the least costly whereas implants are usually the most expensive. Dentures may replace complete arches of the mouth or only a partial number of teeth. Bridges replace smaller spaces of missing teeth and use adjacent teeth to support the restoration. Dental implants may be used to replace a single tooth or a series of teeth. Though implants are the most expensive treatment option, they are often the most desirable restoration because of their aesthetics and function. To improve the function of dentures, implants may be used as support.[58]

Abnormalities
Tooth abnormalities may be categorized according to whether they have environmental or developmental causes.[59] While environmental abnormalities may appear to have an obvious cause, there may not appear to be any known cause for some developmental abnormalities. Environmental forces may affect teeth during development, destroy tooth structure after development, discolor teeth at any stage of development, or alter the course of tooth eruption. Developmental abnormalities most commonly affect the number, size, shape, and structure of teeth.

Digestive

Alteration during tooth development
Tooth abnormalities caused by environmental factors during tooth development have long-lasting effects. Enamel and dentin do not regenerate after they mineralize initially. Enamel hypoplasia is a condition in which the amount of enamel formed is inadequate.[60] This results either in pits and grooves in areas of the tooth or in widespread absence of enamel. Diffuse opacities of enamel does not affect the amount of enamel but changes its appearance. Affected enamel has a different translucency than the rest of the tooth. Demarcated opacities of enamel have sharp boundaries where the translucency decreases and manifest a white, cream, yellow, or brown color. All these may be caused by a systemic event, such as an exanthematous fever.[61] Turner's hypoplasia is a portion of missing or diminished enamel on a permanent tooth usually from a prior infection of a nearby primary tooth. Hypoplasia may also result from antineoplastic therapy. Dental fluorosis is condition which results from ingesting excessive amounts of fluoride and leads to teeth which are spotted, yellow, brown, black or sometimes pitted. Enamel hypoplasia resulting from syphilis is frequently referred to as Hutchinson's teeth, which is considered one part of Hutchinson's triad.[62]

Destruction after development
Tooth destruction from processes other than dental caries is considered a normal physiologic process but may become severe enough to become a pathologic condition. Attrition is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from opposing teeth.[63] Attrition initially affects the enamel and, if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying dentin. Abrasion is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element.[64] If this force begins at the cementoenamel junction, then progression of tooth loss can be rapid since enamel is very thin in this region of the tooth. A common source of this type of tooth wear is excessive force when using a toothbrush. Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin.[65][66] Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the teeth to gastric acids. Another important source of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice. Abfraction is the loss of tooth structure from flexural forces. As teeth flex under pressure, the arrangement of teeth touching each other, known as occlusion, causes tension on one side of the tooth and compression on the other side of the tooth. This is believed to cause V-shaped depressions on the side under tension and C-shaped depressions on the side under compression. When tooth destruction occurs at the roots of teeth, the process is referred to as internal resorption, when caused by cells within the pulp, or external resorption, when caused by cells in the periodontal ligament.

Discoloration
Discoloration of teeth may result from bacteria stains, tobacco, tea, coffee, foods with an abundance of chlorophyll, restorative materials, and medications.[67] Stains from bacteria may cause colors varying from green to black to orange. Green stains also result from foods with chlorophyll or excessive exposure to copper or nickel. Amalgam, a common dental restorative material, may turn adjacent areas of teeth black or gray. Chlorhexidine, a mouthwash, is associated with causing yellow-brown stains near the gingiva on teeth. Systemic disorders also can cause tooth discoloration. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes porphyrins to be deposited in teeth, causing a red-brown coloration. Blue discoloration may occur with alkaptonuria and rarely with Parkinson's disease. Erythroblastosis fetalis and biliary atresia are diseases which may cause teeth to appear green from the deposition of biliverdin. Also, trauma may change a tooth to a pink, yellow, or dark gray color. Pink and red discolorations are also associated in patients with lepromatous leprosy. Some medications, such as tetracycline antibiotics, may become incorporated into the structure of a tooth, causing intrinsic staining of the teeth.

Alteration of eruption
Tooth eruption may be altered by some environmental factors. When eruption is prematurely stopped, the tooth is said to be impacted. The most common cause of tooth impaction is lack of space in the mouth for the tooth.[68] Other causes may be tumors, cysts, trauma, and thickened bone or soft tissue. Ankylosis of a tooth occurs when the tooth has already erupted into the mouth but the cementum or dentin has fused with the alveolar bone. This may cause a person to retain their primary tooth instead of having it replaced by a permanent one.

A technique for altering the natural progression of eruption is employed by orthodontists who wish to delay or speed up the eruption of certain teeth for reasons of space maintenance or otherwise preventing crowding and/or spacing. If a primary tooth is extracted prior to the root of its succeeding permanent tooth reaching ⅓ of its total growth, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be delayed. Conversely, if the roots of the permanent tooth are more than ⅔ complete, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be accelerated. Between ⅓ and ⅔, it is unknown exactly what will occur to the speed of eruption.

Developmental

Abnormality in number
Anodontia is the total lack of tooth development. Hyperdontia is the presence of a higher-than-normal number of teeth, where as Hypodontia is the lack of some teeth. Usually, hypodontia refers to the lack of development of one or more teeth, and oligodontia may be used to describe the absence of 6 or more teeth. Some systemic disorders which may result in hyperdontia include Apert syndrome, Cleidocranial dysostosis, Crouzon syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Gardner syndrome, and Sturge-Weber syndrome.[69] Some systemic disorders which may result in hypodontia include Crouzon syndrome, Ectodermal dysplasia, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and Gorlin syndrome.[70]

Abnormality in size
Microdontia is a condition where teeth are smaller than the usual size, and macrodontia is where teeth are larger than the usual size. Microdontia of a single tooth is more likely to occur in a maxillary lateral incisor. The second most likely tooth to have microdontia are third molars. Macrodontia of all the teeth is known to occur in pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia. It may also occur on one side of the face in cases of hemifacial hyperplasia.

Abnormality in shape

The fusion of two deciduous teeth.Gemination occurs when a developing tooth incompletely splits into the formation of two teeth. Fusion is the union of two adjacent teeth during development. Concrescence is the fusion of two separate teeth only in their cementum. Accessory cusps are additional cusps on a tooth and may manifest as a Talon cusp, Cusp of Carabelli, or Dens evaginatus. Dens invaginatus, also called Dens in dente, is a deep invagination in a tooth causing the appearance of a tooth within a tooth. Ectopic enamel is enamel found in an unusual location, such as the root of a tooth. Taurodontism is a condition where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged, and is associated with Klinefelter syndrome, Tricho-dento-osseous syndrome, Triple X syndrome, and XYY syndrome.[71] Hypercementosis is excessive formation of cementum, which may result from trauma, inflammation, acromegaly, rheumatic fever, and Paget's disease of bone.[71] A dilaceration is a bend in the root which may have been caused by trauma to the tooth during formation. Supernumerary roots is the presence of a greater number of roots on a tooth than expected.

Abnormality in structure
Amelogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which enamel does not form properly or at all.[72] Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which dentin does not form properly and is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta.[73] Dentin dysplasia is a disorder in which the roots and pulp of teeth may be affected. Regional odontodysplasia is a disorder affecting enamel, dentin, and pulp and causes the teeth to appear "ghostly" on radiographs.[74]

Non-human animals

Section through the ivory tusk of a mammothMain article: Tooth (animal)

Teeth of Great White SharkTeeth vary greatly among animals. Some animals, such as turtles and tortoises, are toothless. Others, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[75] Dog teeth are less likely than human teeth to form dental caries because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[76] Unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel and must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[77] Horse teeth include twelve premolars, twelve molars, and twelve incisors. Whale teeth have some similarities and differences from human teeth. Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human to protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. As mentioned, the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface. Whale teeth have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at its tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel.[78] The structure of horse teeth is different from human teeth as the enamel and dentin layers are intertwined.[79]

See also
Look up tooth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
teethBarodontalgia
Braces
Dental auxiliary
Dental assistant
Dental hygienist
Dental technician
Dental notation
Dental tourism
Dentistry
Dragon's teeth (mythology)
Head and neck anatomy
Language
Tooth Fairy
Tooth painting
Vocal tract

Lists
List of basic dentistry topics
List of oral health and dental topics

References
^ Tummers M and Thesleff I. Root or crown: a developmental choice orchestrated by the differential regulation of the epithelial stem cell niche in the tooth of two rodent species. Development (2003). 130(6):1049-57.
^ AM Hunt. A description of the molar teeth and investing tissues of normal guinea pigs. J Dent Res. (1959) 38(2):216-31.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 6. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 3. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 9. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
^ Kokten G, Balcioglu H, Buyukertan M. Supernumerary Fourth and Fifth Molars: A Report of Two Cases. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 2003 November; (4)4:067-076. Page accessed February 10, 2007.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, "Histology: a Text and Atlas", 4th ed. (Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002), p. 441.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 1.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
^ a b Johnson, Clarke. "Biology of the Human Dentition," 1998. Page accessed on January 24, 2007.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 198.
^ a b c Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 448. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ a b c Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 150. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 450. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 152. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 236. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 241. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 451. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Walton, Richard E. and Mahmoud Torabinejad. Principles and Practice of Endodontics. 3rd ed. 2002. Pages 11-13. ISBN 0-7216-9160-9.
^ A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 95. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 81. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b c *University of Texas Medical Branch. "Lab Exercises: Tooth development." Page found here.
^ A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), pp. 86 and 102. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ *Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition, p. 453. 2003. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. pp. 1-3.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 3.
^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 5.
^ Ernst-Michael Kranich, "Anthropologie", in F. Bohnsack and E-M Kranich (eds.), Erziehungswissenschaft und Waldorfpädagogik, Reihe Pädagogik Beltz, Weinheim 1990, p. 126, citing F. Ilg and L. Ames (Gesell Institute), School Readiness, p. 236ff
^ "...the loss of the first deciduous tooth can serve as a definite indicator of a male child's readiness for reading and schoolwork", Diss. Cornell U. Silvestro, John R. 1977. “Second Dentition and School Readiness.” New York State Dental Journal 43 (March): 155—8
^ a b Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 452. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 256. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ a b Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 260. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Listgarten, Max A. "Histology of the Periodontium: Principal fibers of the periodontal ligament," hosted on the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University website. Created May 8, 1999, revised 01/16/2007. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 270. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 274. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Pages 247 and 248. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 280. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ "Oral Health Topics: Plaque", hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Introduction to dental plaque, hosted on the http://www.dentistry.leeds.ac.uk Leeds Dental Institute] website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Ophardt, Charles E. "Sugar and tooth decay", hosted on the Elmhurst College website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
^ Dental Cavities, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, page accessed August 14, 2006.
^ a b Epidemiology of Dental Disease, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed January 9, 2007.
^ Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990.
^ Healthy People: 2010. Html version hosted on Healthy People.gov website. Page accessed August 13, 2006.
^ "Dental caries", from the Disease Control Priorities Project. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
^ Touger-Decker, Riva and Cor van Loveren. Sugars and dental caries, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 2003, pages 881S–892S.
^ Hardie, J.M. (1982). The microbiology of dental caries. Dental Update, 9, 199-208.
^ Holloway, P.J. (1983). The role of sugar in the etiology of dental caries. Journal of Dentistry, 11, 189-213.
^ a b Oral Health Topics: Cleaning your teeth and gums. Hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
^ Introduction to Dental Plaque. Hosted on the Leeds Dental Institute Website, page accessed August 14, 2006.
^ Thumbs down for electric toothbrush, hosted on the BBC News website, posted January 21, 2003. Page accessed January 23, 2007.
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. "Oral Histology: development, structure, and function." 5th edition, 1998, p. 223. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. "Histology: a text and atlas." 4th edition, p. 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
^ "Oral Health Topics: Dental Filling Options", hosted on the ADA website, page accessed May 8, 2007.
^ "Prosthodontic Procedures", hosted on the The American College of Prosthodontists website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
^ "Dental Implants", hosted on the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 50. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. "Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion," 8th edition, p. 31.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 51. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Syphilis: Complications, hosted on the Mayo Clinic website. Page accessed January 21, 2007.
^ "Loss of Tooth Structure", hosted on the American Dental Hygiene Association website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ "Abnormalities of Teeth", hosted on the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Yip, Kevin H-K., Roger J. Smales, John A. Kaidonis. "The diagnosis and control of extrinsic acid erosion of tooth substance", hosted on the Academy of General Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Gandara B.K., Truelove E.L. "Diagnosis and Management of Dental Erosion", online version hosted on the The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice website. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 1999 October; (1)1, pages 16-23. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 63. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 66. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 70. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 69. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ a b Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 85. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
^ Amelogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ Dentinogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ Cho, Shiu-yin, Conservative Management of Regional Odontodysplasia: Case Report, hosted on the Canadian Dental Association website. Issue 72(8): pp. 735–8. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
^ The Permanent Canine Teeth, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed February 5, 2007.
^ Chris C. Pinney, The Illustrated Veterinary Guide for Dogs, Cats, Birds, and Exotic Pets (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1992), p. 187.
^ Caceci, Thomas. Veterinary Histology with subtitle "Digestive System: Oral Cavity" found here.
^ "Common Characteristics of Whale Teeth" here
^ Encarta article found here and Randall-Bowman, whose link can be found here

External links
An article on the use of human tooth used as a neolithic pendant
An overview of dental anatomy
"Broke a tooth? Grow it back", University of Alberta
Straight Teeth
Tooth eruption chart

Ramus of the mandible

2008-12-01T08:51:00.000-08:00

Ramus of the mandible
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Mandibular ramus) Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (January 2007)
Bone: Ramus of the mandible

Mandible. Outer surface. Side view

Mandible. Inner surface. Side view
Latin ramus mandibulae
Gray's subject #44 173

The ramus of the mandible (perpendicular portion) is quadrilateral in shape, and has two surfaces, four borders, and two processes.Contents [hide]
1 Surfaces
2 Borders
3 Processes
4 Additional images
5 External links

[edit]
Surfaces

The lateral surface is flat and marked by oblique ridges at its lower part; it gives attachment throughout nearly the whole of its extent to the masseter.

The medial surface presents about its center the oblique mandibular foramen, for the entrance of the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve.

The margin of this opening is irregular; it presents in front a prominent ridge, surmounted by a sharp spine, the lingula mandibulae, which gives attachment to the sphenomandibular ligament; at its lower and back part is a notch from which the mylohyoid groove runs obliquely downward and forward, and lodges the mylohyoid vessels and nerve.

Behind this groove is a rough surface, for the insertion of the internal pterygoid muscle (Pterygoideus internus). The mandibular canal runs obliquely downward and forward in the ramus, and then horizontally forward in the body, where it is placed under the alveoli and communicates with them by small openings.

On arriving at the incisor teeth, it turns back to communicate with the mental foramen, giving off two small canals which run to the cavities containing the incisor teeth.

In the posterior two-thirds of the bone the canal is situated nearer the internal surface of the mandible; and in the anterior third, nearer its external surface.

It contains the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve, from which branches are distributed to the teeth.

[edit]
Borders

The lower border of the ramus is thick, straight, and continuous with the inferior border of the body of the bone. At its junction with the posterior border is the angle of the mandible, which may be either inverted or everted and is marked by rough, oblique ridges on each side, for the attachment of the Masseter laterally, and the Pterygoideus internus medially; the stylomandibular ligament is attached to the angle between these muscles. The anterior border is thin above, thicker below, and continuous with the oblique line.

The posterior border is thick, smooth, rounded, and covered by the parotid gland. The upper border is thin, and is surmounted by two processes, the coronoid in front and the condyloid behind, separated by a deep concavity, the mandibular notch.

[edit]
Processes

The coronoid process is a thin, triangular eminence, which is flattened from side to side and varies in shape and size.

The condyloid process is thicker than the coronoid, and consists of two portions: the condyle, and the constricted portion which supports it, the neck.

The mandibular notch, separating the two processes, is a deep semilunar depression, and is crossed by the masseteric vessels and nerve.

[edit]
Additional images

The skull from the front.

The Temporalis; the zygomatic arch and Masseter have been removed.

The Pterygoidei; the zygomatic arch and a portion of the ramus of the mandible have been removed.

[edit]
External links
Norman/Georgetown lesson1
Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator, at Elsevier 25420.000-1
Anatomy at PSU skel/mandible2
Roche Lexicon - illustrated navigator, at Elsevier 34256.000-1

Salivary gland

2008-12-01T08:49:00.000-08:00

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007)
Salivary gland

Salivary glands: #1 is Parotid gland, #2 is Submandibular gland, #3 is Sublingual gland

Salivary+Glands
Latin glandulae salivariae

The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands that produce saliva. They also secrete amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into glucose. In other organisms such as insects, salivary glands are often used to produce biologically important proteins like silk or glues, and fly salivary glands contain polytene chromosomes that have been useful in genetic research.Contents [hide]
1 Histology
1.1 Ducts
2 Anatomy
2.1 Parotid Glands
2.2 Submandibular Glands
2.3 Sublingual Gland
2.4 Minor Salivary Glands
2.4.1 Von Ebner's Glands
3 Innervation
4 Role in disease
5 Diagnostic investigation
6 References
7 External links

[edit]
Histology

Parotid gland (green) in relation to the skull.

The glands are enclosed in a capsule of connective tissue and internally divided into lobules. Blood vessels and nerves enter the glands at the hilum and gradually branch out into the lobules.

[edit]
Ducts

In the duct system, the lumens formed by intercalated ducts, which in turn join to form striated ducts. These drain into ducts situated between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar ducts or excretory ducts).

All of the human salivary glands terminate in the mouth, where the saliva proceeds to aid in digestion. The saliva that salivary glands release is quickly inactivated in the stomach by the acid that is present there.

[edit]
Anatomy

The salivary glands are situated at the entrance to the gastrointestinal system to help begin the process of digestion.

[edit]
Parotid Glands
Main article: Parotid gland

The parotid glands are a pair of glands located in the subcutaneous tissues of the face overlying the mandibular ramus and anterior and inferior to the external ear. The secretion produced by the parotid glands is serous in nature, and enters the oral cavity through the Stensen's duct after passing through the intercalated ducts which are prominent in the gland. Despite being the largest pair of glands, only approximately 25% of saliva is produced by the glands. another type of salivary gland is the sublingual salivary gland.

[edit]
Submandibular Glands
Main article: Submandibular gland

The submandibular glands are a pair of glands located beneath the floor of the mouth, superior to the digastric muscles. The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous and mucous and enters the oral cavity via Wharton's ducts. Approximately 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by the submandibular glands, even though they are much smaller than the parotid glands.

[edit]
Sublingual Gland
Main article: Sublingual gland

The sublingual glands are a pair of glands located beneath the floor of the mouth anterior to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature, however it is categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands do not have striated ducts, and exit from 8-20 excretory ducts. Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity come from these glands.

[edit]
Minor Salivary Glands

There are over 600 minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity within the lamina propria of the oral mucosa. They are 1-2mm in diameter and unlike the other glands, they are not encapsulated by connective tissue only surrounded by it. The gland is usually a number of acini connected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a common excretory duct with another gland, or may have its own excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature (except for Von Ebner's glands) and have many functions such as coating the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are usually associated with minor salivary glands.[1]

[edit]
Von Ebner's Glands
Main article: Von Ebner's glands

Von Ebner's glands are glands found in circumvallate papillae of the tongue. They secrete a serous fluid that begin lipid hydrolysis. They are an essential component of taste.

[edit]
Innervation

Salivary glands are innervated, either directly or indirectly, by the parasympathetic and sympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system.
Parasympathetic innervation to the salivary glands is carried via cranial nerves. The parotid gland receives its parasympathetic input from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via the otic ganglion, while the submandibular and sublingual glands receive their parasympathetic input from the facial nerve (CN VII) via the submandibular ganglion.
Direct sympathetic innervation of the salivary glands takes place via preganglionic nerves in the thoracic segments T1-T3 which synapse in the superior cervical ganglion with postganglionic neurons that release norepinephrine, which is then received by β-adrenergic receptors on the acinar and ductal cells of the salivary glands, leading to an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels and the corresponding increase of saliva secretion. Note that in this regard both parasympathetic and sympathetic stimuli result in an increase in salivary gland secretions.[2] The sympathetic nervous system also affects salivary gland secretions indirectly by innervating the blood vessels that supply the glands.

[edit]
Role in disease
See mumps (parotiditis epidemica), Sjögren's syndrome, Mucocele, and Salivary gland neoplasm.

Salivary duct calculus may cause blockage of the ducts, causing pain and swelling of the gland.

Tumors of the salivary glands may occur.

[edit]
Diagnostic investigation

A sialogram is a radiocontrast study of a salivary duct.

[edit]
References
^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 3. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
^ Costanzo, L. (2006). Physiology, 3rd ed.. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN 10:1-4160-2320-8.

[edit]
External links
Salivary Gland Disorders at intelihealth.com
Illustration at merck.com
Illustration at .washington.edu
Photo at mgccc.cc.ms.us

Saliva

2008-12-01T08:48:00.000-08:00

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the band, see Saliva (band); for the village in Azerbaijan, see Səliva.
Not to be confused with Salvia.

Look up saliva in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Saliva is the watery and usually frothy substance produced in the mouths of humans and most other animals. Saliva is produced in and secreted from the salivary glands. Human saliva is composed mostly of water, but also includes electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds, and various enzymes. [1] As part of the initial process of food digestion, the enzymes in the saliva break down some of the starch and fat in the food at the molecular level. Saliva also breaks down food caught in the teeth, protecting them from bacteria that cause decay. Furthermore, saliva lubricates and protects the teeth, the tongue, and the tender tissues inside the mouth. Saliva also plays an important role in tasting food by trapping thiols produced from odourless food compounds by anaerobic bacteria living in the mouth. [2]

Various species have evolved special uses for saliva that go beyond predigestion. Some swifts use their gummy saliva to build their nests. Some Aerodramus swiftlet nests are made only from saliva and used to make bird's nest soup.[3] Cobras, vipers, and certain other members of the venom clade hunt with venomous saliva injected by fangs. Some arthropods, such as spiders and caterpillars, create thread from salivary glands.

Taking a saliva sample for testingContents [hide]
1 Functions
1.1 Digestion
1.2 Disinfectants
1.3 Cleaning
2 Stimulation
3 Daily salivary output
4 Contents
5 References

[edit]
Functions

[edit]
Digestion

The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food, and helping to create a food bolus, so it can be swallowed easily. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that breaks some starches down into maltose and dextrin. Thus, digestion of food occurs within the mouth, even before food reaches the stomach. Salivary glands also secrete enzymes (salivary lipase) to start fat digestion.[4]

[edit]
Disinfectants

A common belief is that saliva contained in the mouth has natural disinfectants, which leads people to believe it is beneficial to "lick their wounds". Researchers at the University of Florida at Gainesville have discovered a protein called nerve growth factor (NGF) in the saliva of mice. Wounds doused with NGF healed twice as fast as untreated and unlicked wounds; therefore, saliva can help to heal wounds in some species. NGF has not been found in human saliva; however, researchers find human saliva contains such antibacterial agents as secretory IgA, lactoferrin, and lactoperoxidase. It has not been shown that human licking of wounds disinfects them, but licking is likely to help clean the wound by removing larger contaminants such as dirt and may help to directly remove infective bodies by brushing them away. Therefore, licking would be a way of wiping off pathogens, useful if clean water is not available to the animal or person.

The mouth of animals is the habitat of many bacteria, some pathogenic. Some diseases, such as herpes, can be transmitted through the mouth. Animal (including human) bites are routinely treated with systemic antibiotics because of the risk of septicemia.

Recent research suggests that the saliva of birds is a better indicator of avian influenza than are faecal samples. [5]

[edit]
Cleaning

Saliva is an effective cleaning agent used in art conservation. Cotton swabs coated with saliva are rolled across a paintings surface to delicately remove thin layers of dirt that may accumulate.[6]

[edit]
Stimulation

The production of saliva is stimulated both by the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic.[7]

The saliva stimulated by sympathetic innervation is thicker, and saliva stimulated parasympathetically is more watery.

Parasympathetic stimulation leads to acetylcholine (ACh) release onto the salivary acinar cells. ACh binds to muscarinic receptors and causes an increased intracellular calcium ion concentration (through the IP3/DAG second messenger system). Increased calcium causes vesicles within the cells to fuse with the apical cell membrane leading to secretion formation. ACh also causes the salivary gland to release kallikrein, an enzyme that converts kininogen to lysyl-bradykinin. Lysyl-bradykinin acts upons blood vessels and capillaries of the salivary gland to generate vasodilation and increased capillary permeability respectively. The resulting increased blood flow to the acinar allows production of more saliva. Lastly, both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous stimulation can lead to myoepitheilium contraction which causes the expulsion of secretions from the secretory acinus into the ducts and eventually to the oral cavity.

[edit]
Daily salivary output

There is much debate about the amount of saliva that is produced in a healthy person per day. The estimates range from 0.75 liters per day to 1.5 liters per day.This suggests that the amount produced varies from person to person. It is generally accepted though that while sleeping the amount usually drops to almost zero.

[edit]
Contents

Produced in salivary glands, human saliva is 98% water, but it contains many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various enzymes. [8]

It is a fluid containing:
Water
Electrolytes:
2-21 mmol/L sodium (lower than blood plasma)
10-36 mmol/L potassium (higher than plasma)
1.2-2.8 mmol/L calcium
0.08-0.5 mmol/L magnesium
5-40 mmol/L chloride (lower than plasma)
25 mmol/L bicarbonate (higher than plasma)
1.4-39 mmol/L phosphate
Mucus. Mucus in saliva mainly consists of mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins;
Antibacterial compounds (thiocyanate, hydrogen peroxide, and secretory immunoglobulin A)
Various enzymes. There are three major enzymes found in saliva.
α-amylase (EC3.2.1.1). Amylase starts the digestion of starch and lipase fat before the food is even swallowed. It has a pH optima of 7.4.
lysozyme (EC3.2.1.17). Lysozyme acts to cause lysis in bacteria.
lingual lipase (EC3.1.1.3). Lingual lipase has a pH optimum ~4.0 so it is not activated until entering the acidic environment of the stomach.
Minor enzymes include salivary acid phosphatases A+B (EC3.1.3.2), N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanine amidase (EC3.5.1.28), NAD(P)H dehydrogenase-quinone (EC1.6.99.2), salivary lactoperoxidase (EC1.11.1.7), superoxide dismutase (EC1.15.1.1), glutathione transferase (EC2.5.1.18), class 3 aldehyde dehydrogenase (EC1.2.1.3), glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (EC5.3.1.9), and tissue kallikrein (EC3.4.21.35).
Cells: Possibly as much as 8 million human and 500 million bacterial cells per mL. The presence of bacterial products (small organic acids, amines, and thiols) causes saliva to sometimes exhibit foul odor.
Opiorphin, a newly researched pain-killing substance found in human saliva.

Different reagents used to determine the content of saliva \1. Molisch test gives a positive result of purple color that is costituent to the presence of carbohydrates

[edit]
References
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_6
^ Christian Starkenmann, Benedicte Le Calvé, Yvan Niclass, Isabelle Cayeux, Sabine Beccucci, and Myriam Troccaz. Olfactory Perception of Cysteine−S-Conjugates from Fruits and Vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2008; 56 (20): 9575-9580 DOI: 10.1021/jf801873h
^ Marcone, M. F. (2005). "Characterization of the edible bird's nest the Caviar of the East." Food Research International 38:1125–1134. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2005.02.008 Abstract retrieved 12 Nov 2007
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
^ "Saliva swabs for bird flu virus more effective than faecal samples" German Press Agency December 11, 2006 Retrieved 13 November 2007
^ "Techniques for Cleaning Acrylic". Golden Artist Colors. Retrieved on 2008-09-12.
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_7
^ Physiology at MCG 6/6ch4/s6ch4_6

Mouth

2008-12-01T08:44:00.000-08:00

Mouth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the anatomical structure. For other uses, see Mouth (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)
Mouth

Head and neck.

A closed female human mouth
Latin cavitas oris
MeSH Oral+cavity

The mouth, buccal cavity, or oral cavity is the first portion of the alimentary canal that receives food and begins digestion by mechanically breaking up the solid food particles into smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva.[1] It is lined with a mucous membrane (as opposed to the exterior of the body, which is lined with skin. The lips mark the transition from mucous membrane to skin.Contents [hide]
1 In humans
1.1 Mouth cavity
1.2 Function
1.3 Cultural aspects
1.4 Development
2 In animals
3 See also
4 Additional images
5 References
6 External links

[edit]
In humans

[edit]
Mouth cavity

An image of the inside of the top and bottom of the mouth showing the location of the teeth.

The first space of the mouth is the mouth cavity, bounded laterally and in front by the alveolar arches (containing the teeth), and posteriorily by the isthmus of the fauces. The oral cavity is also known as the mouth which it swallows food and drinks and goes down to the person's stomach.

[edit]
Function

The mouth plays an important role in speech (it is part of the vocal apparatus), facial expression, kissing, eating, drinking (especially with a straw) & breathing.

Infants are born with a sucking reflex, by which they instinctively know to suck for nourishment using their lips and jaw.

[edit]
Cultural aspects

According to western etiquette, the mouth is kept closed, especially when chewing.

Lips can be adorned with lipstick or lip gloss, although in most cultures this is typically only practised by females.

Piercings have been made popular by the younger generations. Lip, tongue, and the 'Monroe' (Monroe piercing is a stud piercing placed on one's face in the same area as Marilyn Monroe's well known and prominent birthmark was) are piercings seen in many varieties. Piercings of any sort besides two subtle earrings are seen as rebellious to the norm in many western cultures.

[edit]
Development

The philtrum is the vertical groove in the upper lip, formed where the nasomedial and maxillary processes meet during embryo development. When these processes fail to fuse fully, a hare lip and/or cleft palate can result.

The nasolabial folds are the deep creases of tissue that extend from the nose to the sides of the mouth. One of the first signs of age on the human face is the increase in prominence of the nasolabial folds.

[edit]
In animals

An alligator's mouth.

Some animal phyla, including vertebrates, have a complete digestive system, with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a criterion used to classify animals into protostome and deuterostome. The first space of the mouth is the mouth cavity, bounded laterally and in front by the alveolar arches (containing the teeth), and posteriorly by the isthmus of the fauces.[2]

[edit]
See also
Head and neck anatomy
Mouth breathing
List of oral health and dental topics
List of basic dentistry topics

[edit]
Additional images

Sagittal section of nose mouth, pharynx, and larynx.

A male human mouth.

[edit]
References
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.

Dentistry

2008-12-01T08:42:00.000-08:00

Dentistry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article requires authentication or verification by an expert.
Please assist in recruiting an expert or improve this article yourself. See the talk page for details. (December 2007)

This article is about the dental profession. For tooth care see oral hygiene dental surgery.

A Dentist and Dental Assistant perform surgery on a patient.

Dentistry is the "evaluation, diagnosis, prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical, surgical or related procedures) of diseases, disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and/or the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body". Dentistry is necessary for complete oral health.[1] Those in the practice of dentistry are known as dentists. Other people aiding in oral health service include dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and dental therapists.Contents [hide]
1 General practices
1.1 Surgery
1.2 Prevention
2 Education and licensing
3 Specialities
4 History
5 Geography
6 Organizations
7 See also
7.1 Lists
8 References
9 External links

[edit]
General practices

[edit]
Surgery

Dentistry usually encompasses a number of practices related to the oral cavity. The most common treatments involve the dental surgery on the teeth as a treatment for dental caries. Decayed teeth can be filled with dental amalgam, dental composite, dental porcelain and precious or non-precious metals. Oral and maxillofacial surgery is a more specialized form of dental surgery. Dentists can prescribe medication, x-rays, and devices for home or in-office use. Many oral diseases (such as bilateral odontogenic keratocysts) and abnormalities (such as several unerupted teeth) can indicate systemic, neural, or other diseases. Most general practitioners of dentistry perform restorative, prosthetic, routine endodontic therapy, routine periodontal therapy, and simple exodontia, as well as performing examinations. Many general practitioners are comfortable treating complex cases, as well as placing implants and surgically extracting third molars (wisdom teeth). All dentists must achieve a certain degree of skill in various disciplines in order to graduate from dental school and become an accredited dentist.

[edit]
Prevention

Dentists also encourage prevention of dental caries through proper hygiene (tooth brushing and flossing), fluoride, and tooth polishing. Recognized but less conventional preventive agents include xylitol, which is bacteriostatic,[2] casein derivatives,[3] and proprietary products such as Cavistat BasicMints.[4]

[edit]
Education and licensing

The Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, the first dental school in the world, opened in Baltimore, Maryland in 1840, and in 1867, Harvard Dental School became the second dental school affiliated with a university.
Studies showed that dentists graduated from different countries[5], or even from different dental schools in one country[6], may have different clinical decisions for the same clinical condition. For example, dentists graduated from Israeli dental schools may recommend more often for the removal of asymptomatic impacted third molar (wisdom teeth) than dentists graduated from Latin-American or Eastern European dental schools.[7]

In England, the 1878 British Dentists Act and 1879 Dentists Register limited the title of "dentist" and "dental surgeon" to qualified and registered practitioners.[8][9] The practice of dentistry in the United Kingdom became fully regulated with the 1921 Dentists Act, which required the registration of anyone practicing dentistry.[10] The British Dental Association, formed in 1880 with Sir John Tomes as president, played a major role in prosecuting dentists practicing illegally.[8] A dentist is a healthcare professional qualified to practice dentistry after graduating with a degree of either Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD), Bachelor of Dentistry (BDent), Bachelor of Dental Science (BDSc), or Bachelor of Dental Surgery/Chirurgiae (BDS) or (BChD) or equivalent. In most western countries, to become a qualified dentist one must usually complete at least 4 years of postgraduate study[citation needed]. Dentists usually complete between 5–8 years of post secondary education before practicing. Though not mandatory, many dentists choose to complete an internship or residency focusing on specific aspects of dental care after they have received their dental degree.

[edit]
Specialities

In addition to general dentistry, there are about 9 recognized dental specialties in the US, Canada, and Australia. To become a specialist requires one to train in a residency or advanced graduate training program. Once residency is completed, the doctor is granted a certificate of specialty training. Many specialty programs have optional or required advanced degrees such as (MD/MBBS specific to Maxillofacial Surgery), MS, or PhD.
Dental public health (study of dental epidemiology and social health policies),
Endodontics (root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp),
Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology (study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases),
Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology (study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases),
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery (extractions, implants, and facial surgery),
Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopaedics (straightening of teeth and modification of midface and mandibular growth),
Periodontics (study and treatment of diseases of the periodontium (non-surgical and surgical), and placement and maintenance of dental implants),
Pediatric Dentistry (i.e. dentistry for children, formerly known as "pedodontics"),
Prosthodontics (dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. Some prosthodontists further their training in "oral and maxillofacial prosthodontics"--a discipline concerned with the replacement of missing facial structures--such as ears, eyes, nose, etc.)

Specialists in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. "Board Eligible") and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, endodontist, pediatric dentist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. "Board Certified"), (Australia/NZ: "FRACDS"), or (Canada: "FRCD(C)") registry requirements.

A tenth specialty, dental anesthesiology, the study of how to relieve pain through advanced use of local and general anesthesia techniques is not yet considered to be one of the recognized dental specialties. However, CODA is in the process of accrediting all dental anesthesiology programs.[citation needed]

Two other post-graduate formal advanced education programs: General Practice Residency (advanced clinical and didactic training with intense hospital experience) and Advanced Education in General Dentistry (advanced training in clinical dentistry) recognized by the ADA do not lead to specialization.

The American Board of Dental Sleep Medicine (ABDSM) provides board-certification examinations annually for qualified dentists. These dentists collaborate with sleep physicians at accredited sleep centers and can provide oral appliance therapy and upper airway surgery to treat sleep-related breathing disorders.[1] While Diplomate status granted by the ABDSM is not one of the recognized dental specialties, it is recognized by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM).

Special category: Oral Biology - Research in Dental and Craniofacial Biology

Other dental education exists where no post-graduate formal university training is required: cosmetic dentistry, dental implant, temporo-mandibular joint therapy. These usually require the attendance of one or more continuing education courses that typically last for one to several days. There are restrictions on allowing these dentists to call themselves specialists in these fields. The specialist titles are registrable titles and controlled by the local dental licensing bodies.

Forensic odontology consists of the gathering and use of dental evidence in law. This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field. The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity.

Geriatric dentistry or geriodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal ageing and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.

Veterinary dentistry, a speciality of veterinary medicine, is the field of dentistry applied to the care of animals[11][12].

Aviation dentistry, a subcategory of (military) aviation medicine deals with dental topics related to aircrews, e.g., dental barotrauma[13] and barodontalgia[14][15]. In addition, the aircrew population is a unique high-risk group to several diseases and harmful conditions due to irregular work shifts with irregular self-oral care habits and irregular meals (usually carbonated drinks and high energy snacks) and work-related stress.[16]

[edit]
History

Farmer at the dentist, Johann Liss, c. 1616-17.

Evidence of ancient dentistry has recently been found in a Neolithic graveyard in the Indus River basin of Pakistan. Teeth dating from around 7000 to 5500 BC show evidence of holes from dental drills. The teeth were found in people of the Indus Valley Civilization.[17][18][19] A Sumerian text from 5000 BC describes a "tooth worm" as the cause of dental caries.[20] Evidence of this belief has also been found in ancient India, Egypt, Japan, and China. The legend of the worm is also found in the writings of Homer, and as late as the 1300s AD the surgeon Guy de Chauliac still promoted the belief that worms cause tooth decay.[21]

The Edwin Smith Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC but which may reflect previous manuscripts from as early as 3000 BC, includes the treatment of several dental ailments.[22][23] In the 18th century BC, the Code of Hammurabi referenced dental extraction twice as it related to punishment.[24] Examination of the remains of some ancient Egyptians and Greco-Romans reveals early attempts at dental prosthetics and surgery.[25]

Ancient Greek scholars Hippocrates and Aristotle wrote about dentistry, including the eruption pattern of teeth, treating decayed teeth and gum disease, extracting teeth with forceps, and using wires to stabilize loose teeth and fractured jaws.[26] The first use of dental appliances or bridges comes from the Etruscans from as early as 700 BC.[27] Roman medical writer Cornelius Celsus wrote extensively of oral diseases as well as dental treatments such as narcotic-containing emollients and astringents.[28][29]

Medieval dentist extracting a tooth. London; c. 1360-75.

Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses. During the Middle Ages and throughout the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. Barbers usually limited their practice to extracting teeth, which not only resulted in the alleviation of pain, but often cured a variety of ailments linked to chronic tooth infection. Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac invented the dental pelican[30] (resembling a pelican's beak) which was used up until the late 18th century. The pelican was replaced by the dental key[30] which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 20th century.[citation needed]

The first book focused solely on dentistry was the "Artzney Buchlein" in 1530,[31] and the first dental textbook written in English was called "Operator for the Teeth" by Charles Allen in 1685.[9] It was between 1650 and 1800 that the science of modern dentistry developed. It is said that the 17th century French physician Pierre Fauchard started dentistry science as we know it today, and he has been named "the father of modern dentistry".[32] Among many of his developments were the extensive use of dental prosthesis, the introduction of dental fillings as a treatment for dental caries and the statement that sugar derivate acids such as tartaric acid are responsible for dental decay.

Army Dental Surgery. Display at Army Medical Services Museum. Typical of dental surgeries, civil and military, during the 1940s and 1950s. Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (November 2008)

A modern Dentist's chair in a Public Hospital Na Wa, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand.

[edit]
Geography
Main article: Dentistry throughout the world

[edit]
Organizations
Main article: List of dental organizations

[edit]
See also Dentistry portal

At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Dentistry at:
The School of Dentistry

Sagittal section of a tooth
Barodontalgia
Biodontics
Bruxism
Calculus
Crown
Dental amalgam
Dental brace
Dental cavities
Dental extraction
Dental fear
Floss
Dental implants
Dental notation
Dental restoration
Dental spa
Dentin
Fluoridation
Fluoride therapy
Gingivitis
Halitosis
Laboratory technology
Mouthwash
Nitrous oxide
Novocain, a Local anesthetic
Occlusion
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Oral and maxillofacial surgery
Oral hygiene
Orthodontics
Patron Saint of dentistry (Saint Apollonia)
Periodontitis
Periodontology or Periodontics
Plaque
Regenerative dentistry
Teledentistry
Temporomandibular joint disease
Toothache
Toothbrush
Toothpaste
Xerostomia

[edit]
Lists
List of dentists
List of oral health and dental topics
List of basic dentistry topics
List of dental schools in the United States

[edit]
References
^ Dentistry Definitions, hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed 11 December 2007. This definition was adopted the association's House of Delegates in 1997.
^ American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2006) Policy on the Use of Xylitol in Caries Prevention.
^ Azarpazhooh, A.; Limeback, H. (2008), The Journal of the American Dental Association (Am Dental Assoc) 139 (7): 915, http://www.adajournal.com/cgi/content/abstract/139/7/915
^ Experimental chewy mint beats tooth decay
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (January 2008). "Clinical decision making in restorative dentistry, endodontics, and antibiotic prescription". J Dent Educ 72 (1): 81–6. PMID 18172239.
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (April 2006). "Decision making of Hebrew University and Tel Aviv University Dental Schools graduates in every day dentistry--is there a difference?". J Isr Dent Assoc 23 (2): 19–23. PMID 16886872.
^ Zadik Yehuda, Levin Liran (April 2007). "Decision making of Israeli, East European, and South American dental school graduates in third molar surgery: is there a difference?". J Oral Maxillofac Surg 65 (4): 658–62. PMID 17368360. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ a b Gelbier, Stanley. 125 Years of Developments in Dentistry. British Dental Journal (2005); 199, 470-473. Page accessed 11 December 2007. The 1879 register is referred to as the "Dental Register".
^ a b The story of dentistry: Dental History Timeline, hosted on the British Dental Association website. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ History of Dental Surgery in Edinburgh, hosted on the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh website. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ AVDC Home
^ EVDC web site
^ Zadik Y (June 2006). "Dental Fractures on Acute Exposure to High Altitude". Aviat Space Environ Med 77 (6): 654–7. PMID 16780246. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Zadik Y (August 2006). "Barodontalgia due to odontogenic inflammation in the jawbone". Aviat Space Environ Med 77 (8): 864–6. PMID 16909883. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Zadik Y, Chapnik L, Goldstein L (June 2007). "In-flight barodontalgia: analysis of 29 cases in military aircrew". Aviat Space Environ Med 78 (6): 593–6. PMID 17571660. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Lurie, Orit; Zadik, Yehuda; Tarrasch, Ricardo; Raviv, Gil; Goldstein, Liav (February 2007). "Bruxism in Military Pilots and Non-Pilots: Tooth Wear and Psychological Stress". Aviat Space Environ Med 78 (2): 137–9. PMID 17310886. Retrieved on 16 July 2008.
^ Stone age man used dentist drill, hosted on the BBC News website. Last updated 6 April 2006. Page accessed 11 December 2007.
^ Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry: Tooth drilling goes back 9000 years in Pakistan, scientists say, hosted on the MSNBC website. Page accessed on 10 January 2007.
^ Coppa, A. et al. 2006. "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population." Nature. Volume 440. 6 April 2006.
^ History of Dentistry: Ancient Origins, hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed 9 January 2007.
^ Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990.
^ Arab, M. Sameh. Medicine in Ancient Egypt. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Ancient Egyptian Dentistry, hosted on the University of Oklahoma website. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Wilwerding, Terry. History of Dentistry, hosted on the Creighton University School of Dentistry website, page 4. Page accessed 15 December 2007.
^ Medicine in Ancient Egypt 3
^ History of Dentistry Ancient Origins
^ History of Dentistry Research Page, Newsletter
^ Dentistry - Skill And Superstition
^ Dental Treatment in the Ancient Times
^ a b Antique Dental Instruments
^ History of Dentistry Middle Ages
^ History of Dentistry Articles

[edit]
External links
History of Dentistry in the 20th Century by the ADA
Information resource for UK dental professionals
Ancient dentistry discovered
Dentpedia.info - Dental Encyclopedia
Dentistry at the Open Directory Project

[TIPS]Menggosok Gigi

2008-12-01T08:39:00.000-08:00

Posted by: lareosing on: December 1, 2008

In: TIPS Comment!
Tips menggosok gigi :

Sikat gigi hendaknya dipegang sedemikian rupa sehingga bulu sikat mengarah ke akar gigi.
Gosoklah seluruh permukaan gigi yang menghadap ke pipi dan lidah. Letakkan sikat gigi pada posisi kurang lebih 45 derajat di daerah perbatasan antara antara gigi dan gusi.. Tekan dan tarik perlahan-lahan sikat ke arah bawah bagi gigi atas dan ke arah atas bagi gigi bawah.
Gerakan dilakukan kurang lebih 10 kali pada setiap bagian
Permukaan kunyah gigi dibersihkan dengan gerakan rotasi atau gerakan ke depan belakang.
Gosoklah gigi dua kali sehari, yaitu pagi setelah sarapan dan malam sebelum tidur.
Agar lebih efektif gunakan cermin sebagai alat bantu ketika menggosok gigi.
Kontrol kesehatan gigi dan mulut anda dengan teratur mengunjungi dokter gigi minimal 6 bulan satu kali

Untuk anak, perhatikan hal-hal berikut ini:

Untuk anak pada satu tahun pertama usahakan tetap melakukan rutinitas memberihkan gigi dan gusi minimal sehari satu kali dengan kasa/kain lembut yang dibasahi air hangat.
Gosoklah gigi dengan lembut ke dalam dan keluar untuk mengeluarkan sisa makanan yg tertinggal
Jika gigi susunya telah tumbuh secara lengkap (kira-kira 2 – 2,5 tahun) mulailah ajari cara menggosok gigi yang benar. Ciptakan suasana yang menarik sehingga si kecil menikmati acara gosok giginya. Lakukan penyikatan ulang oleh ibunda sebagai finishing touch setelah si kecil menggosok giginya
Jangan lupa berikan pujian untuk si kecil jika ia sudah berusaha menggosok gigi sendiri

BENARKAH,SAKIT GIGI BISA MENYEBABKAN DISFUNGSI EREKSI.?”

2008-12-01T08:38:00.000-08:00

BENARKAH,SAKIT GIGI BISA MENYEBABKAN DISFUNGSI EREKSI.?”Siapa sih yang sudi sakit gigi? Meski lagu bertajuk Lebih Baik Sakit Gigi yang dilantunkan Meggy Z. pernah menjadi hit, benarkah orang punya penilaian sama seperti syair lagu tersebut–daripada sakit hati lebih baik sakit gigi? Maklum, sakit gigi identik dengan nyeri tak berkesudahan disertai rasa pening dan sakit di sekujur tubuh. Bila gigi terasa nyeri, jangankan bekerja, hubungan seksual yang nikmat bagi hampir seluruh umat manusia pun akan ditinggalkan.

Hal ini benar-benar terjadi di Makassar dan mungkin di seluruh dunia. Drg Hasanuddin Thahir, SpPerio dari Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Sulawesi Selatan, berulang kali menerima keluhan ini. Para lelaki yang datang ke tempat prakteknya mengungkapkan “dingin”-nya ranjang mereka akibat nyeri gigi yang amat menyakitkan.

“Bila sakit gigi menerpa mereka selama satu pekan, selama itu pula mereka tak menyentuh istri. Kata mereka, boro-boro berhubungan seksual, nyeri gigi ini mengganggu seluruh aktivitas keseharian,” ujar Thahir kepada wartawan di sela-sela Kongres Dokter Gigi Asia Pasifik (APDC) ke-29 di Jakarta akhir April lalu.

Nyeri gigi ini, kata Thahir, terutama diakibatkan oleh caries gigi dan penyakit periodontal yang prevalensinya sangat tinggi di Indonesia. Rasa sakit di daerah tertentu, seperti pada gigi, rupanya mempengaruhi interaksi antara faktor psikoneuroendokrin dan faktor vaskular yang menyebabkan disfungsi ereksi.

Tertarik dengan kondisi ini, Thahir mewakili Bagian Periodontologi Fakultas Kedokteran Gigi bekerja sama dengan Wardihan Sinrang dari Bagian Fisiologi Fakultas Kedokteran–keduanya dari Universitas Hasanudin–melakukan penelitian terhadap pengaruh nyeri gigi terhadap disfungsi ereksi pada penderita nyeri gigi. Hasil penelitian ini dipresentasikan dalam kongres tersebut.

Sebanyak 35 orang berusia 35-55 tahun ikut berpartisipasi dalam penelitian yang digelar. Partisipan yang diambil adalah orang berusia di atas 35 tahun. Menurut kedua peneliti tersebut, ini karena pada pria di bawah 35 tahun, meski mengalami nyeri pada gigi, derita itu tak mengurangi gairah seks mereka.

Para partisipan, kata Thahir, didiagnosis mengidap pulpitis akut atau nyeri akibat gigi berlubang yang amat sangat (10 orang), pulpitis kronis (7 orang), periodontitis akut atau radang antara gusi dan gigi yang amat sangat (6 orang), serta hyperaemia pulpa atau ngilu gigi (6 orang). Semua partisipan memiliki keluhan rasa nyeri pada gigi paling sedikit selama seminggu dan selanjutnya dievaluasi setelah dilakukan perawatan.

Data diambil berdasarkan wawancara dan secara tertulis. Yang menarik, seorang responden terpaksa dicoret karena meski nyeri gigi, ia tetap melakukan hubungan seksual dengan wanita selingkuhannya. “Kami memang membatasi para partisipan pada pria beristri dan tak memiliki wanita idaman lain,” ujar Thahir sembari tersenyum lebar.

Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa nyeri gigi pada pulpitis akut, periodontitis akut, dan hyperaemia pulpa (hipersensitif dentin) menyebabkan disfungsi ereksi. Nyeri gigi ini mempengaruhi rangsangan seksual sehingga frekuensi hubungan seksual secara nyata menjadi berkurang. Bahkan pada kasus pulpitis akut dan periodontitis akut, hubungan seksual pada minggu pertama dan kedua berkurang 90-97 persen. Sedangkan nyeri gigi pada periodontitis kronis dan pulpitis kronis tidak berpengaruh secara signifikan.

Di samping itu, pada penderita periodontal abses, meskipun dapat melakukan hubungan seksual, aktivitas ciuman dalam hubungan seksual menurun secara nyata. “Tak bisa mencium pasangan Anda berarti menurunkan kadar keintiman,” dia menandaskan. Ia menyimpulkan nyeri yang ditimbulkan oleh penyakit gigi dan periodontal dapat mempengaruhi kehidupan seksual. “Akibatnya tentu sangat buruk. Selama satu pekan itu, kualitas hidup seseorang memburuk secara signifikan,” ia menegaskan.

Disfungsi ereksi pada kasus nyeri gigi, menurut Thahir dan Wardihan, diduga terjadi akibat penghambatan atau penekanan pada saraf parasimpatis sehingga tidak mampu melepaskan pengantar saraf pada otot polos korpus kavernosum, yang selanjutnya menyebabkan dilatasi pembuluh darah perifer.

Selain itu, otak di daerah thalamus dan hypothalamus sudah penuh dengan sensasi nyeri sehingga daerah tersebut tidak mampu mempersepsi sensasi seksual yang diterima, baik melalui rangsang rabaan, visual, atau imajinasi, sehingga sensasi tersebut tidak dapat diteruskan ke serabut saraf desenden menuju pusat ereksi di daerah segmen torakolumbal atau penis. Untuk itu, jagalah kesehatan mulut dan gigi Anda dengan baik. Bila diabaikan, ranjang Anda mungkin akan sedingin puncak Jayawijaya!

Erosi Gigi Berkat Softdrink

2008-12-01T08:34:00.000-08:00

Gula dan asam yang terkandung di dalam softdrink dan jus jeruk dapat menyebabkan terjadinya erosi gigi, yang artinya mengikis gigi. Hal ini dapat memicu terjadinya gigi sensitif atau gigi linu. Minuman sehat apa yang bisa menjadi alternatif pengganti softdrink dan jus jeruk?

Berdasarkan penelitian yang tercantum di Journal of Academy of General Dentistry bulan Juli/Agustus, pilihan minuman yang terbaik adalah teh.

Selain rasanya nikmat, teh juga memiliki keuntungan dari segi kesehatan. Teh dilengkapi oleh antioksidan alami yang dipercaya dapat mengurangi insidensi terjadinya kanker, penyakit kardiovaskular, dan diabetes.

Dalam kaitannya dengan erosi gigi, peneliti menambahkan bahwa antara teh hijau dengan teh hitam sama-sama baik untuk gigi. Kedua minuman ini sama seperti air, tidak mengerosi gigi. Sementara itu, untuk kandungan flavonoid alami dan antioksidan, teh hijau dipercaya lebih baik daripada teh hitam menurut berbagai penelitian di berbagai negara seperti Jepang dan Eropa.

Namun, jika Anda ingin meminum teh, para ahli menyarankan agar jangan menambah zat penambah rasa, seperti susu, gula, atau lemon. Karena zat-zat ini akan menyatu dengan flavonoid alami dari teh dan akan mengurangi efek antioksidannya. Sebagai tambahan, sebaiknya Anda menghindari minuman teh kemasan karena biasanya mereka mengandung citric acid dan gula dalam jumlah yang cukup tinggi.

Brewed Tea Is The Best Drink To Avoid Tooth Erosion

Apabila Anda ingin berlangganan berita terbaru dari Gigi Sehat Badan Sehat, daftarkanlah alamat email Anda dengan meng-klik kata berlangganan: Berlangganan.

Berita terbaru dari Gigi Sehat Badan Sehat akan langsung dikirimkan ke email Anda.

Konsern hari ini: Dokter Gigi Holistik?

2008-12-01T08:32:00.001-08:00

Hari ini saya menemani mama tercinta ke dokter gigi. Lumayan membangkitkan ingatan "menarik" masa kecil saat terdengar bunyi-bunyi bor gigi :D. Diantara mesin-mesin perang tersebut, saya bertanya-tanya, "Adakah jalan damai?" -terlepas dari konteks alat-alat canggih, ya. Kuriosita saya adalah eksistensi pengobatan 'damai'. Tanpa alat perang :D

Hal ini akan menjadi pertanyaan yang menunggu datangnya jawaban. Baik itu dari kolom komentar, atau yang datang sendiri bersedia membantu saya :)

Konsern hari ini: Dokter Gigi Holistik?

2008-12-01T08:32:00.000-08:00

Laser Teeth Whitening

2008-12-01T08:27:00.000-08:00

Laser Teeth Whitening
Saturday, September 13th, 2008 Subscribe To Our Feed

There’s something about a great smile. Especially a great smile that shows off beautiful white teeth. A bright white smile says “healthy”, and admit it, people with beautiful white teeth somehow just look happier and more attractive. A whiter smile can make a person more confident and outgoing in social situations. Unfortunately most of us don’t have as great a smile that we could. Years of drinking dark colored beverages such as coffee, tea, soda, and red wine, smoking, and aging take their toll on the color of tooth enamel. The great news is that today anyone can have a dazzling white smile.

Teeth whitening has become the most common form of cosmetic dentistry performed over the last few years. It’s a very simple and fairly inexpensive way to greatly improve your smile. There are several ways to whiten your teeth depending on the amount of money you want to spend, and your level of patience. You can choose from tooth whitening gels and whitening toothpaste, bleaching strips, bleaching gel with a fitted mouth tray, or laser teeth whitening. Laser teeth whitening is sometimes called in-office bleaching. Of all these different types of alternatives laser teeth whitening is the fastest way to a white smile, it’s also the most expensive. A one hour teeth whitening session generally runs around $600.00.

Laser teeth whitening is considered the top of the line treatment and takes about one hour. The dentist applies a bleach solvent containing hydrogen peroxide to the teeth. You will find that hydrogen peroxide is found in all teeth whitening products. The higher the amount of hydrogen peroxide the faster the tooth whitening will take place. Once the bleach is on the teeth the teeth are subjected to a light source, usually a laser. This laser activates the hydrogen peroxide. This application is left on your teeth for twenty minutes. This process is then repeated two more times before you are done.

Of course, the results you receive from any tooth whitening system will fade over time. Trying to avoid dark colored drinks and not smoking will help you enjoy the results for a longer peroid of time.

Like this post? Publish It On Your Own Blog

KAMPANYE SIMPATIK ALA PSI; Gigi Cakil pun ‘Dipangur’

2008-12-01T08:21:00.000-08:00

KAMPANYE SIMPATIK ALA PSI; Gigi Cakil pun ‘Dipangur’
Desember 1, 2008 oleh imamsamroni

Liputan Pemilu 2004
Kedaulatan Rakyat, Bantul, Friday, 26 March 2004

BANTUL (KR) - Para cakil (calon wakil) rakyat yang duduk berjajar itu meringis ketika sebuah gunting taman yang cukup tajam memotong satu demi satu gigi mereka. Memang bukan gigi asli yang dipotong atau dipangur tersebut, melainkan hanya gigi yang menempel di topeng berbentuk buta cakil yang dikenakan para calon anggota legislatif (caleg).
Itulah salah satu bentuk kampanye unik DPC Partai Syarikat Indonesia (PSI) Bantul, Kamis (25/3), di Jl Bantul, Niten Pendowoharjo Sewon. Kampanye cakil mangur untu ini merupakan rangkaian dari kampanye pertama, Rabu (17/3) lalu, di mana PSI Bantul saat itu menggelar kampanye Pengantin Cakil.
Menurut Ketua PSI Bantul H Imam Samroni SPd, cakil sebagai representasi kekuatan penghalang (pacoban) niscaya dinegasi kekuasaannya dan rakyat sebagai ksatria adalah pemegang kedaulatan yang mengeksekusi. Dengan demikian, dalam kesehariannya para caleg itu diharapkan menjadi terjaga dan kehidupan berjalan normatif serta baik.
Menurut Imam Samroni, di masa mendatang moralitas yang mengemuka adalah politik kepekaan dan pemihakan, yaitu kekuatan untuk mengontrol kebijakan publik, termasuk kebijakan dan manajemen transportasi bagi pengendara sepeda di wilayah Bantul dan DIY. Atas kepeduliannya terhadap pengendara sepeda di Bantul, PSI kemarin membagi-bagikan 1001 batang pensil kepada mereka.
Koordinator Penyelenggara Kampanye DPC PSI Bantul Fahrul Rozi dan Toyib Fauzan mengatakan, selain di Jl Bantul, kampanye dengan tema Cakil Mangur Untu ini juga dilaksanakan di Jl Imogiri Barat.
Pembagian pensil itu sendiri merupakan kritik terhadap kebijakan Bupati Bantul yang menggalakkan program e-government tetapi masyarakatnya belum siap untuk menghadapi. Karena di saat zaman serba internet, masih ada daerah yang belum tersentuh jaringan telepon. “Sehingga bisa dikatakan, ketika bupati sudah bicara mouse, masyarakat baru bisa menggunakan pensil,” kata Rozi dan Fauzan, seraya menambahkan, selain alat tulis parpol nomor 22 ini juga membagi-bagikan stiker dan brosur.
Di Sleman, PSI DIY kemarin menggelar kampanye dengan mancing bersama di Selokan Mataram ruas Trirenggo Gamping. Masyarakat dari berbagai kalangan turut berpartisipasi dalam acara ini. Menurut Ketua DPD PSI DIY Drs H Ismail Djaelani, kegiatan mancing ini merupakan bentuk kebersamaan seluruh masyarakat.
“Dengan mancing bersama ini kita juga ingin menunjukkan bahwa tidak ada arogansi di sini. Semuanya sama. Ini juga sudah menjadi komitmen PSI, yang tidak akan melaksanakan kampanye melalui konvoi dan arak-arakan sepedamotor,” tandas Ismail Djaelani yang menunggui jalannya kampanye sambil mancing dari pagi hingga siang hari.
Kegiatan mancing bersama kemarin berlangsung meriah. Tidak sedikit pemancing yang mendapatkan ikan cukup banyak. Namun ada pula pemancing yang tidak mendapatkan ikan sama sekali. Untuk mendukung kegiatan ini, PSI menaburkan beberapa jenis ikan sebanyak 2 kuintal untuk tahap pertama dan 3 kuintal tahap kedua. Masyarakat sendiri cukup antusias mengikuti kegiatan mancing yang juga ditandai dengan ‘pemancingan kursi’ wakil rakyat tersebut.
Menurut Ketua DPC PSI Sleman, Drs Sumardjo SH, lima kuintal ikan yang ditebarkan, semuanya jenis gurami. Tujuan kampanye unik yang dilakukan massa dan pengurus PSI ini menurutnya untuk mengenalkan kepada masyarakat, partai ini siap menjadi basis kalangan petani dan nelayan. (Tim KR)-z.

Ditulis dalam Layang Kabar | yang berkaitan cakil mangur untu, calon wakil, kampanye Pengantin Cakil

san francisco cosmetic dentis

2008-12-01T08:18:00.000-08:00

san francisco cosmetic dentis
Bonding

Bonding is a quick, painless in-office procedure to repair cracks, chips, gaps between teeth or cover stained teeth to enhance your smile. Bonding can often be done without anesthesia if there is no decay or pulp exposure. The bonding material is developed in many shades allowing the dentist to accurately match the shade of your natural teeth. The composite resin forms a durable, stain resistant surface that is later smoothed and polished to give it a natural appearance and feel.

Bonding can be used to:
Protect exposed roots of teeth
Repair cracks, unevenness, chips
Close spaces between your front teeth
Reshape crooked or misshapen teeth
Replace old or unattractive silver fillings
Whiten stained teeth
Replace missing teeth
Stabilize loose teeth

san francisco cosmetic dentist

Teeth (film)

2008-11-30T10:16:00.001-08:00

Teeth (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Teeth

Theatrical release poster
Directed by Mitchell Lichtenstein
Produced by Richard E. Chapla Jr.
Mitchell Lichtenstein
Joyce M. Pierpoline
Written by Mitchell Lichtenstein
Starring Jess Weixler
Hale Appleman
John Hensley
Music by Robert Miller
Cinematography Wolfgang Held
Editing by Joe Landauer
Distributed by Roadside Attractions
Release date(s) January 19, 2007 (Sundance)
January 18, 2008
Running time 94 minutes
Country USA
Language English
Budget $2,000,000
Gross revenue $1,875,335

Teeth is a horror-black comedy film written and directed by Mitchell Lichtenstein, about a girl who has teeth in her vagina. It premiered January 19, 2007 at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival in the independent drama category. It was released on DVD in the US on May 6, 2008 by Dimension Extreme.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Plot
* 2 Cast
* 3 Release
* 4 Critical reception
o 4.1 Sundance
o 4.2 Additional Awards
* 5 References
* 6 External links

[edit] Plot

Dawn O’Keefe (Jess Weixler) is a teenage spokesperson for a Christian Abstinence group called The Promise. She attends groups with her two friends, Gwen (Julia Garro) and Phil (Adam Wagner). One evening after giving her speech talking about the ring those in the group wear and what it means she is introduced to Tobey (Hale Appleman) and finds him attractive.

The four begin going out as a group and Dawn has fantasies of marrying Tobey, although after acknowledging the attraction they agree that they cannot spend time together. Soon after they give in and meet at a local swimming hole. After swimming together they go in to a cave to get warm and begin kissing. Tobey then forces himself on Dawn, in the panic her vagina (DVD) bites off his penis. She flees the scene, leaving him to bleed out. After a Promise meeting, she meets her classmate Ryan (Ashley Springer) at a dance, they talk and he drops her off home.

Dawn researches Vagina dentata and realises she may have it and then visits a gynaecologist Dr. Godfrey (Josh Pais) in an attempt to find out what is happening to her. Finding out that she is a virgin he attempts to take advantage of her by saying he is performing a test, when what he is really doing is molesting her. She panics and her vagina bites off the fingers on his right hand. He screams “vagina dentata” in his pain. On her way back she sees someone driving in Tobey's car and she goes back to visit the pool. When she gets there she sees the police bringing up Tobey's body. At home her ill mother Kim O'Keefe(Vivienne Benesch) collapses, but Dawn's step-brother, Brad (John Hensley) and his girlfriend Melanie (Nicole Swahn) continue to have sex while she lies on the floor. Kim is taken to hospital.

She goes to Ryan and the two successfully have sex. The following morning they have sex again, but mid-coitus Ryan’s friend calls and Dawn learns that he had a wager on having sex with her. In her anger her vagina bites off his penis, and she leaves him to call his mother for help.

Dawn learns her mother has died, and after her step-father Bill O'Keefe (Lenny Von Dohlen) attempts to throw Brad out he sets his dog on him. Dawn meets her step-father and Melanie at the hospital and emboldened by her power she goes back home to seek revenge. Dawn admits her feelings for her step-brother and they engage in sex. In the middle of the act Brad recalls when he was younger and being bitten on the finger by Dawn, he remembers that it wasn’t her mouth that bit him. As he realises this Dawn’s vagina bites off his penis. She releases it on the ground and Brad’s dog eats it, spitting out the glans and Prince Albert piercing. Dawn leaves him to bleed out.

Dawn cycles away from home, but her bike sustains a puncture so she begins hitch hiking. She gets a lift from an old man (Doyle Carter) but when she reaches the next gas station and tries to get out he locks the doors. He licks his lips as if to ask for a sexual favor to release her, Dawn looks towards camera and gives a kinky smile.

[edit] Cast

* Jess Weixler as Dawn O'Keefe
* John Hensley as Brad Swanson O'Keefe
* Josh Pais as Dr. Godfrey
* Hale Appleman as Tobey
* Lenny Von Dohlen as Bill O'Keefe
* Vivienne Benesch as Kim O'Keefe
* Ashley Springer as Ryan
* Julia Garro as Gwen
* Nicole Swahn as Melanie
* Adam Wagner as Phil

[edit] Release

The film premiered January 19, 2007 at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival.

It was also shown at the

* Berlin International Film Festival,
* Nantucket Film Festival,
* Sydney International Film Festival,
* Melbourne International Film Festival,
* London FrightFest Film Festival,
* Deauville Festival of American Cinema,
* Hamptons International Film Festival,
* Auckland International Film Festival.

It opened in limited release in the United States on January 18, 2008.[1] The film was released on DVD on May 6, 2008.

[edit] Critical reception

The film received mostly positive reviews from critics. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 81% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 59 reviews — with the consensus that the film is "smart, original, and horrifically funny."[2] Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 57 out of 100, based on 22 reviews.[3]

[edit] Sundance

Reaction from the 2007 Sundance Film Festival was positive, with Cinematical critic Scott Weinberg saying, "Teeth is precisely the sort of genre movie that we need to see more of."[4] Adrienne Shelly Foundation artistic director Mystelle Brabbée declared it "one of the most talked-about films at the Sundance Film Festival this year".[5]

Jess Weixler won the Special Jury Prize for Dramatic Performance (and tied with Tamara Podemski from the film Four Sheets to the Wind).[6]

[edit] Additional Awards

Weixler and Hensley were honored at Spike TV's 2008 Scream Awards. The pair won the award for "Most Memorable Mutilation" for "Penis Bitten Off By Vagina With Teeth"

[edit] References

1. ^ "Teeth (2007/I) - Release dates". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved on 2008-01-19.
2. ^ "Teeth - Movie Reviews, Trailers, Pictures - Rotten Tomatoes". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved on 2008-05-15.
3. ^ "Teeth (2008): Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved on 2008-05-15.
4. ^ "Sundance Review: Teeth", Cinematical (2007-01-21). Retrieved on 24 January 2007.
5. ^ Burnham, Gabriella (2007-11-04). "2007 Film Festival focus centers on female screenwriters", The Inquirer and Mirror. Retrieved on 17 November 2007.
6. ^ "2007 Sundance Film Festival award winners". The Salt Lake Tribune (2007-01-28). Retrieved on 2007-01-28.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teeth_(film)

Tooth

2008-11-30T10:14:00.000-08:00

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Semi-protected
"Teeth" redirects here. For the film, see Teeth (film).
Teeth
An adult human's teeth.
CGI posterior view of teeth taken from inside mouth
Dorlands/Elsevier Tooth

Teeth (singular, Tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Some animals, particularly carnivores, also use teeth for hunting or defense. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness.

Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and determine their relationships. The shape of the animal's teeth are related to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores have many molars for chewing. Carnivores, on the other hand, need canines to kill and tear meat.

Mammals are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the "baby," "milk," "primary" or "deciduous" set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age, although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful.

Some animals develop only one set of teeth (monophyodont) while others develop many sets (polyphyodont). Sharks, for example, grow a new set of teeth every two weeks to replace worn teeth. Rodent incisors grow and wear away continually through gnawing, maintaining relatively constant length. Many rodents, such as the sibling vole and the guinea pig[verification needed], have continuously growing molars in addition to incisors.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Anatomy
* 2 Parts
o 2.1 Enamel
o 2.2 Dentin
o 2.3 Cementum
o 2.4 Pulp
* 3 Development
* 4 Eruption
* 5 Supporting structures
o 5.1 Periodontal ligaments
o 5.2 Alveolar bone
o 5.3 Gingiva
* 6 Tooth decay
o 6.1 Plaque
o 6.2 Caries (Cavities)
* 7 Tooth care
* 8 Restorations
* 9 Abnormalities
o 9.1 Digestive
+ 9.1.1 Alteration during tooth development
+ 9.1.2 Destruction after development
+ 9.1.3 Discoloration
+ 9.1.4 Alteration of eruption
o 9.2 Developmental
+ 9.2.1 Abnormality in number
+ 9.2.2 Abnormality in size
+ 9.2.3 Abnormality in shape
+ 9.2.4 Abnormality in structure
* 10 Non-human animals
* 11 See also
o 11.1 Lists
* 12 References
* 13 External links

Anatomy
A third molar.

Main article: Dental anatomy

The bottom teeth are used more for the grinding of food and the top front teeth are mainly used for biting.

Dental anatomy is a field of anatomy dedicated to the study of tooth structures. The development, appearance, and classification of teeth fall within its field of study, though dental occlusion, or contact among teeth, does not. Dental anatomy is also a taxonomical science as it is concerned with the naming of teeth and their structures. This information serves a practical purpose for dentists, enabling them to easily identify teeth and structures during treatment.

The anatomic crown of a tooth is the area covered in enamel above the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[3] The majority of the crown is composed of dentin with the pulp chamber in the center.[4] The crown is within bone before eruption.[5] After eruption, it is almost always visible. The anatomic root is found below the cementoenamel junction and is covered with cementum. As with the crown, dentin composes most of the root, which normally have pulp canals. A tooth may have multiple roots or just one root. Canines and most premolars, except for maxillary (upper) first premolars, usually have one root. Maxillary first premolars and mandibular molars usually have two roots. Maxillary molars usually have three roots. Additional roots are referred to as supernumerary roots.
Models of human teeth as they exist within the alveolar bone.

Humans usually have 20 primary teeth (also called deciduous, baby, or milk teeth) and 32 permanent teeth. Among primary teeth, 10 are found in the (upper) maxilla and the other 10 in the (lower) mandible. Teeth are classified as incisors, canines, and molars. In the primary set of teeth, there are two types of incisors, centrals and laterals, and two types of molars, first and second. All primary teeth are replaced with permanent counterparts except for molars, which are replaced by permanent premolars. Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla with the other 16 in the mandible. The maxillary teeth are the maxillary central incisor, maxillary lateral incisor, maxillary canine, maxillary first premolar, maxillary second premolar, maxillary first molar, maxillary second molar, and maxillary third molar. The mandibular teeth are the mandibular central incisor, mandibular lateral incisor, mandibular canine, mandibular first premolar, mandibular second premolar, mandibular first molar, mandibular second molar, and mandibular third molar. Third molars are commonly called "wisdom teeth" and may never erupt into the mouth or form at all. If any additional teeth form, for example, fourth and fifth molars, which are rare, they are referred to as supernumerary teeth.[6]

Most teeth have identifiable features that distinguish them from others. There are several different notation systems to refer to a specific tooth. The three most commons systems are the FDI World Dental Federation notation, the universal numbering system, and Palmer notation method. The FDI system is used worldwide, and the universal is used widely in the United States.

Parts
Section of a human molar

Enamel

Main article: Tooth enamel

Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body and is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.[7] It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material composing the rest.[8] The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border, which is seen clinically as the cementoenamel junction (CEJ).[9]

Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxyapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate.[10] The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness.[11] Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support.[10] Unlike dentin and bone, enamel does not contain collagen. Instead, it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions.[12]

Dentin

Main article: Dentin

Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber. It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp.[13] The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis. The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70% inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10% water by weight.[14] Because it is softer than enamel, it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated, but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth.

Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. Dentin has microscopic channels, called dentinal tubules, which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border.[15] The diameter of these tubules range from 2.5 μm near the pulp, to 1.2 μm in the midportion, and 900 nm near the dentino-enamel junction.[16] Although they may have tiny side-branches, the tubules do not intersect with each other. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined.

Cementum

Main article: Cementum

Cementum is a specialized bony substance covering the root of a tooth.[13] It is approximately 45% inorganic material (mainly hydroxyapatite), 33% organic material (mainly collagen) and 22% water. Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel. The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability. At the cementoenamel junction, the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components, and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root.[17] The more permeable form of cementum, cellular cementum, covers about ⅓ of the root apex.[18]

Pulp

Main article: Pulp (tooth)

The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue.[14] This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root.[19] Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts, which initiate the formation of dentin.[14] Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts, preodontoblasts, macrophages and T lymphocytes.[20] The pulp is commonly called "the nerve" of the tooth.

Development

Main article: Tooth development

Radiograph of lower right third, second, and first molars in different stages of development.

Tooth development is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells, grow, and erupt into the mouth. Although many diverse species have teeth, non-human tooth development is largely the same as in humans. For human teeth to have a healthy oral environment, enamel, dentin, cementum, and the periodontium must all develop during appropriate stages of fetal development. Primary (baby) teeth start to form between the sixth and eighth weeks in utero, and permanent teeth begin to form in the twentieth week in utero.[21] If teeth do not start to develop at or near these times, they will not develop at all.

A significant amount of research has focused on determining the processes that initiate tooth development. It is widely accepted that there is a factor within the tissues of the first branchial arch that is necessary for the development of teeth.[22]

Tooth development is commonly divided into the following stages: the bud stage, the cap, the bell, and finally maturation. The staging of tooth development is an attempt to categorize changes that take place along a continuum; frequently it is difficult to decide what stage should be assigned to a particular developing tooth.[22] This determination is further complicated by the varying appearance of different histologic sections of the same developing tooth, which can appear to be different stages.

The tooth bud (sometimes called the tooth germ) is an aggregation of cells that eventually forms a tooth. It is organized into three parts: the enamel organ, the dental papilla and the dental follicle.[23] The enamel organ is composed of the outer enamel epithelium, inner enamel epithelium, stellate reticulum and stratum intermedium.[23] These cells give rise to ameloblasts, which produce enamel and the reduced enamel epithelium. The growth of cervical loop cells into the deeper tissues forms Hertwig's Epithelial Root Sheath, which determines a tooth's root shape. The dental papilla contains cells that develop into odontoblasts, which are dentin-forming cells.[23] Additionally, the junction between the dental papilla and inner enamel epithelium determines the crown shape of a tooth.[24] The dental follicle gives rise to three important entities: cementoblasts, osteoblasts, and fibroblasts. Cementoblasts form the cementum of a tooth. Osteoblasts give rise to the alveolar bone around the roots of teeth. Fibroblasts develop the periodontal ligaments which connect teeth to the alveolar bone through cementum.[25]

Eruption

Main article: Tooth eruption

Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible. Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption. Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age. These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old. At that time, the first permanent tooth erupts. This stage, during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth, is known as the mixed stage. The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth.

There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption. One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth.[26] Another, known as the cushioned hammock theory, resulted from microscopic study of teeth, which was thought to show a ligament around the root. It was later discovered that the "ligament" was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide.[27] Currently, the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process.[28]

The onset of primary tooth loss has been found to correlate strongly with somatic and psychological criteria of school readiness.[29][30]

Supporting structures
Histologic slide of tooth erupting into the mouth.
A: tooth
B: gingiva
C: bone
D: periodontal ligaments

The periodontium is the supporting structure of a tooth, helping to attach the tooth to surrounding tissues and to allow sensations of touch and pressure.[31] It consists of the cementum, periodontal ligaments, alveolar bone, and gingiva. Of these, cementum is the only one that is a part of a tooth. Periodontal ligaments connect the alveolar bone to the cementum. Alveolar bone surrounds the roots of teeth to provide support and creates what is commonly called an alveolus, or "socket". Lying over the bone is the gingiva or gum, which is readily visible in the mouth.

Periodontal ligaments

The periodontal ligament is a specialized connective tissue that attaches the cementum of a tooth to the alveolar bone. This tissue covers the root of the tooth within the bone. Each ligament has a width of 0.15 - 0.38 mm, but this size decreases over time.[32] The functions of the periodontal ligaments include attachment of the tooth to the bone, support for the tooth, formation and resorption of bone during tooth movement, sensation, and eruption.[33] The cells of the periodontal ligaments include osteoblasts, osteoclasts, fibroblasts, macrophages, cementoblasts, and epithelial cell rests of Malassez.[34] Consisting of mostly Type I and III collagen, the fibers are grouped in bundles and named according to their location. The groups of fibers are named alveolar crest, horizontal, oblique, periapical, and interradicular fibers.[35] The nerve supply generally enters from the bone apical to the tooth and forms a network around the tooth toward the crest of the gingiva.[36] When pressure is exerted on a tooth, such as during chewing or biting, the tooth moves slightly in its socket and puts tension on the periodontal ligaments. The nerve fibers can then send the information to the central nervous system for interpretation.

Alveolar bone

The alveolar bone is the bone of the jaw which forms the alveolus around teeth.[37] Like any other bone in the human body, alveolar bone is modified throughout life. Osteoblasts create bone and osteoclasts destroy it, especially if force is placed on a tooth.[31] As is the case when movement of teeth is attempted through orthodontics, an area of bone under compressive force from a tooth moving toward it has a high osteoclast level, resulting in bone resorption. An area of bone receiving tension from periodontal ligaments attached to a tooth moving away from it has a high number of osteoblasts, resulting in bone formation.

Gingiva

The gingiva ("gums") is the mucosal tissue that overlays the jaws. There are three different types of epithelium associated with the gingiva: gingival, junctional, and sulcular epithelium. These three types form from a mass of epithelial cells known as the epithelial cuff between the tooth and the mouth.[38] The gingival epithelium is not associated directly with tooth attachment and is visible in the mouth. The junctional epithelium, composed of the basal lamina and hemidesmosomes, forms an attachment to the tooth.[33] The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue on the gingiva which touches but is not attached to the tooth.[39] This leaves a small potential space between the gingiva and tooth which can collect bacteria, plaque, and calculus.

Tooth decay

Plaque

Main article: Dental plaque

Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of various bacteria that form on teeth.[40] If not removed regularly, plaque buildup can lead to dental cavities (caries) or periodontal problems such as gingivitis. Given time, plaque can mineralize along the gingiva, forming tartar. The microorganisms that form the biofilm are almost entirely bacteria (mainly streptococcus and anaerobes), with the composition varying by location in the mouth.[41] Streptococcus mutans is the most important bacteria associated with dental caries.

Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods, especially sugars and starches. In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid, which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel.[13][42] This process, known as "demineralisation", leads to tooth destruction. Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH. This causes 'remineralisation', the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel. If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves. Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque, however, to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria.

Caries (Cavities)
Advanced tooth decay on a premolar.

Main article: Dental caries

Dental caries, also described as "tooth decay" or "dental cavities", is an infectious disease which damages the structures of teeth.[43] The disease can lead to pain, tooth loss, infection, and, in severe cases, death. Dental caries has a long history, with evidence showing the disease was present in the Bronze, Iron, and Middle ages but also prior to the neolithic period.[44] The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with diet changes.[44][45] Today, caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world. In the United States, dental caries is the most common chronic childhood disease, being at least five times more common than asthma.[46] Countries that have experienced an overall decrease in cases of tooth decay continue to have a disparity in the distribution of the disease.[47] Among children in the United States and Europe, 60-80% of cases of dental caries occur in 20% of the population.[48]

Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid-producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose, fructose, and glucose.[49][50] The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH. Depending on the extent of tooth destruction, various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form, function, and aesthetics, but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure. Instead, dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures, such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications, to avoid dental caries.[51]

Tooth care
Toothbrushes are commonly used to clean teeth.

Main article: Oral hygiene

Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth clean and is a means of preventing dental caries, gingivitis, periodontal disease, bad breath, and other dental disorders. It consists of both professional and personal care. Regular cleanings, usually done by dentists and dental hygienists, remove tartar (mineralized plaque) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, using various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from teeth.

The purpose of cleaning teeth is to remove plaque, which consists mostly of bacteria.[52] Healthcare professionals recommend regular brushing twice a day (in the morning and in the evening, or after meals) in order to prevent formation of plaque and tartar.[51] A toothbrush is able to remove most plaque, excepting areas between teeth. As a result, flossing is also considered a necessity to maintain oral hygiene. When used correctly, dental floss removes plaque from between teeth and at the gum line, where periodontal disease often begins and could develop caries. Electric toothbrushes are not considered more effective than manual brushes for most people.[53] The most important advantage of electric toothbrushes is their ability to aid people with dexterity difficulties, such as those associated with rheumatoid arthritis.

In addition, fluoride therapy is often recommended to protect against dental caries, water fluoridation and fluoride supplements decrease the incidence of dental caries. Fluoride helps prevent dental decay by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel.[54] The incorporated fluoride makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and thus more resistant to decay.[55] Topical fluoride, such as a fluoride toothpaste or mouthwash, is also recommended to protect teeth surfaces. Many dentists include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine cleanings.

Restorations

After a tooth has been damaged or destroyed, restoration of the missing structure can be achieved with a variety of treatments. Restorations may be created from a variety of materials, including glass ionomer, amalgam, gold, porcelain, and composite.[56] Small restorations placed inside a tooth are referred to as "intracoronal restorations". These restorations may be formed directly in the mouth or may be cast using the lost-wax technique, such as for some inlays and onlays. When larger portions of a tooth are lost, an "extracoronal restoration" may be fabricated, such as a crown or a veneer, to restore the involved tooth.
Picture of a restored premolar.

When a tooth is lost, dentures, bridges, or implants may be used as replacements.[57] Dentures are usually the least costly whereas implants are usually the most expensive. Dentures may replace complete arches of the mouth or only a partial number of teeth. Bridges replace smaller spaces of missing teeth and use adjacent teeth to support the restoration. Dental implants may be used to replace a single tooth or a series of teeth. Though implants are the most expensive treatment option, they are often the most desirable restoration because of their aesthetics and function. To improve the function of dentures, implants may be used as support.[58]

Abnormalities

Tooth abnormalities may be categorized according to whether they have environmental or developmental causes.[59] While environmental abnormalities may appear to have an obvious cause, there may not appear to be any known cause for some developmental abnormalities. Environmental forces may affect teeth during development, destroy tooth structure after development, discolor teeth at any stage of development, or alter the course of tooth eruption. Developmental abnormalities most commonly affect the number, size, shape, and structure of teeth.

Digestive

Alteration during tooth development

Tooth abnormalities caused by environmental factors during tooth development have long-lasting effects. Enamel and dentin do not regenerate after they mineralize initially. Enamel hypoplasia is a condition in which the amount of enamel formed is inadequate.[60] This results either in pits and grooves in areas of the tooth or in widespread absence of enamel. Diffuse opacities of enamel does not affect the amount of enamel but changes its appearance. Affected enamel has a different translucency than the rest of the tooth. Demarcated opacities of enamel have sharp boundaries where the translucency decreases and manifest a white, cream, yellow, or brown color. All these may be caused by a systemic event, such as an exanthematous fever.[61] Turner's hypoplasia is a portion of missing or diminished enamel on a permanent tooth usually from a prior infection of a nearby primary tooth. Hypoplasia may also result from antineoplastic therapy. Dental fluorosis is condition which results from ingesting excessive amounts of fluoride and leads to teeth which are spotted, yellow, brown, black or sometimes pitted. Enamel hypoplasia resulting from syphilis is frequently referred to as Hutchinson's teeth, which is considered one part of Hutchinson's triad.[62]

Destruction after development

Tooth destruction from processes other than dental caries is considered a normal physiologic process but may become severe enough to become a pathologic condition. Attrition is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from opposing teeth.[63] Attrition initially affects the enamel and, if unchecked, may proceed to the underlying dentin. Abrasion is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element.[64] If this force begins at the cementoenamel junction, then progression of tooth loss can be rapid since enamel is very thin in this region of the tooth. A common source of this type of tooth wear is excessive force when using a toothbrush. Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin.[65][66] Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the teeth to gastric acids. Another important source of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice. Abfraction is the loss of tooth structure from flexural forces. As teeth flex under pressure, the arrangement of teeth touching each other, known as occlusion, causes tension on one side of the tooth and compression on the other side of the tooth. This is believed to cause V-shaped depressions on the side under tension and C-shaped depressions on the side under compression. When tooth destruction occurs at the roots of teeth, the process is referred to as internal resorption, when caused by cells within the pulp, or external resorption, when caused by cells in the periodontal ligament.

Discoloration

Discoloration of teeth may result from bacteria stains, tobacco, tea, coffee, foods with an abundance of chlorophyll, restorative materials, and medications.[67] Stains from bacteria may cause colors varying from green to black to orange. Green stains also result from foods with chlorophyll or excessive exposure to copper or nickel. Amalgam, a common dental restorative material, may turn adjacent areas of teeth black or gray. Chlorhexidine, a mouthwash, is associated with causing yellow-brown stains near the gingiva on teeth. Systemic disorders also can cause tooth discoloration. Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes porphyrins to be deposited in teeth, causing a red-brown coloration. Blue discoloration may occur with alkaptonuria and rarely with Parkinson's disease. Erythroblastosis fetalis and biliary atresia are diseases which may cause teeth to appear green from the deposition of biliverdin. Also, trauma may change a tooth to a pink, yellow, or dark gray color. Pink and red discolorations are also associated in patients with lepromatous leprosy. Some medications, such as tetracycline antibiotics, may become incorporated into the structure of a tooth, causing intrinsic staining of the teeth.

Alteration of eruption

Tooth eruption may be altered by some environmental factors. When eruption is prematurely stopped, the tooth is said to be impacted. The most common cause of tooth impaction is lack of space in the mouth for the tooth.[68] Other causes may be tumors, cysts, trauma, and thickened bone or soft tissue. Ankylosis of a tooth occurs when the tooth has already erupted into the mouth but the cementum or dentin has fused with the alveolar bone. This may cause a person to retain their primary tooth instead of having it replaced by a permanent one.

A technique for altering the natural progression of eruption is employed by orthodontists who wish to delay or speed up the eruption of certain teeth for reasons of space maintenance or otherwise preventing crowding and/or spacing. If a primary tooth is extracted prior to the root of its succeeding permanent tooth reaching ⅓ of its total growth, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be delayed. Conversely, if the roots of the permanent tooth are more than ⅔ complete, the eruption of the permanent tooth will be accelerated. Between ⅓ and ⅔, it is unknown exactly what will occur to the speed of eruption.

Developmental

Abnormality in number

Anodontia is the total lack of tooth development. Hyperdontia is the presence of a higher-than-normal number of teeth, where as Hypodontia is the lack of some teeth. Usually, hypodontia refers to the lack of development of one or more teeth, and oligodontia may be used to describe the absence of 6 or more teeth. Some systemic disorders which may result in hyperdontia include Apert syndrome, Cleidocranial dysostosis, Crouzon syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Gardner syndrome, and Sturge-Weber syndrome.[69] Some systemic disorders which may result in hypodontia include Crouzon syndrome, Ectodermal dysplasia, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and Gorlin syndrome.[70]

Abnormality in size

Microdontia is a condition where teeth are smaller than the usual size, and macrodontia is where teeth are larger than the usual size. Microdontia of a single tooth is more likely to occur in a maxillary lateral incisor. The second most likely tooth to have microdontia are third molars. Macrodontia of all the teeth is known to occur in pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia. It may also occur on one side of the face in cases of hemifacial hyperplasia.

Abnormality in shape
The fusion of two deciduous teeth.

Gemination occurs when a developing tooth incompletely splits into the formation of two teeth. Fusion is the union of two adjacent teeth during development. Concrescence is the fusion of two separate teeth only in their cementum. Accessory cusps are additional cusps on a tooth and may manifest as a Talon cusp, Cusp of Carabelli, or Dens evaginatus. Dens invaginatus, also called Dens in dente, is a deep invagination in a tooth causing the appearance of a tooth within a tooth. Ectopic enamel is enamel found in an unusual location, such as the root of a tooth. Taurodontism is a condition where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged, and is associated with Klinefelter syndrome, Tricho-dento-osseous syndrome, Triple X syndrome, and XYY syndrome.[71] Hypercementosis is excessive formation of cementum, which may result from trauma, inflammation, acromegaly, rheumatic fever, and Paget's disease of bone.[71] A dilaceration is a bend in the root which may have been caused by trauma to the tooth during formation. Supernumerary roots is the presence of a greater number of roots on a tooth than expected.

Abnormality in structure

Amelogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which enamel does not form properly or at all.[72] Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which dentin does not form properly and is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta.[73] Dentin dysplasia is a disorder in which the roots and pulp of teeth may be affected. Regional odontodysplasia is a disorder affecting enamel, dentin, and pulp and causes the teeth to appear "ghostly" on radiographs.[74]

Non-human animals
Section through the ivory tusk of a mammoth

Main article: Tooth (animal)

Teeth of Great White Shark

Teeth vary greatly among animals. Some animals, such as turtles and tortoises, are toothless. Others, such as sharks, may go through many teeth in their lifetime. Walrus tusks are canine teeth that grow continuously throughout life.[75] Dog teeth are less likely than human teeth to form dental caries because of the very high pH of dog saliva, which prevents enamel from demineralizing.[76] Unlike humans whose ameloblasts die after tooth development, rodents continually produce enamel and must wear down their teeth by gnawing on various materials.[77] Horse teeth include twelve premolars, twelve molars, and twelve incisors. Whale teeth have some similarities and differences from human teeth. Like human teeth, whale teeth have polyp-like protrusions located on the root surface of the tooth. These polyps are made of cementum in both species, but in human to protrusions are located on the outside of the root, while in whales the nodule is located on the inside of the pulp chamber. As mentioned, the roots of human teeth are made of cementum on the outer surface. Whale teeth have cementum on the entire surface of the tooth with a very small layer of enamel at its tip. This small enamel layer is only seen in older whales where the cementum has been worn away to show the underlying enamel.[78] The structure of horse teeth is different from human teeth as the enamel and dentin layers are intertwined.[79]

See also
Look up tooth in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
teeth

* Barodontalgia
* Braces
* Dental auxiliary
o Dental assistant
o Dental hygienist
o Dental technician
* Dental notation
* Dental tourism
* Dentistry
* Dragon's teeth (mythology)
* Head and neck anatomy
* Language
* Tooth Fairy
* Tooth painting
* Vocal tract

Lists

* List of basic dentistry topics
* List of oral health and dental topics

References

1. ^ Tummers M and Thesleff I. Root or crown: a developmental choice orchestrated by the differential regulation of the epithelial stem cell niche in the tooth of two rodent species. Development (2003). 130(6):1049-57.
2. ^ AM Hunt. A description of the molar teeth and investing tissues of normal guinea pigs. J Dent Res. (1959) 38(2):216-31.
3. ^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 6. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
4. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 3. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
5. ^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion. 8th edition. Page 9. ISBN 0-7216-9382-2.
6. ^ Kokten G, Balcioglu H, Buyukertan M. Supernumerary Fourth and Fifth Molars: A Report of Two Cases. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 2003 November; (4)4:067-076. Page accessed February 10, 2007.
7. ^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, "Histology: a Text and Atlas", 4th ed. (Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002), p. 441.
8. ^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 1.
9. ^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
10. ^ a b Johnson, Clarke. "Biology of the Human Dentition," 1998. Page accessed on January 24, 2007.
11. ^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 219.
12. ^ Cate, A. R. Ten, "Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function", 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 198.
13. ^ a b c Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 448. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
14. ^ a b c Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 150. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
15. ^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 450. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
16. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 152. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
17. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 236. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
18. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 241. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
19. ^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 451. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
20. ^ Walton, Richard E. and Mahmoud Torabinejad. Principles and Practice of Endodontics. 3rd ed. 2002. Pages 11-13. ISBN 0-7216-9160-9.
21. ^ A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 95. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
22. ^ a b A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), p. 81. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
23. ^ a b c *University of Texas Medical Branch. "Lab Exercises: Tooth development." Page found here.
24. ^ A. R. Ten Cate, Oral Histology: Development, Structure, and Function, 5th ed. (Saint Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1998), pp. 86 and 102. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
25. ^ *Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition, p. 453. 2003. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
26. ^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. pp. 1-3.
27. ^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 3.
28. ^ Harris, Edward F. Craniofacial Growth and Development. In the section entitled "Tooth Eruption." 2002. p. 5.
29. ^ Ernst-Michael Kranich, "Anthropologie", in F. Bohnsack and E-M Kranich (eds.), Erziehungswissenschaft und Waldorfpädagogik, Reihe Pädagogik Beltz, Weinheim 1990, p. 126, citing F. Ilg and L. Ames (Gesell Institute), School Readiness, p. 236ff
30. ^ "...the loss of the first deciduous tooth can serve as a definite indicator of a male child's readiness for reading and schoolwork", Diss. Cornell U. Silvestro, John R. 1977. “Second Dentition and School Readiness.” New York State Dental Journal 43 (March): 155—8
31. ^ a b Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 452. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
32. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 256. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
33. ^ a b Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. Histology: a text and atlas. 4th edition. Page 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
34. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 260. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
35. ^ Listgarten, Max A. "Histology of the Periodontium: Principal fibers of the periodontal ligament," hosted on the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University website. Created May 8, 1999, revised 01/16/2007. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
36. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 270. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
37. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 274. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
38. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Pages 247 and 248. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
39. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. Oral Histology: development, structure, and function. 5th ed. 1998. Page 280. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
40. ^ "Oral Health Topics: Plaque", hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
41. ^ Introduction to dental plaque, hosted on the http://www.dentistry.leeds.ac.uk Leeds Dental Institute] website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
42. ^ Ophardt, Charles E. "Sugar and tooth decay", hosted on the Elmhurst College website. Page accessed April 2, 2007.
43. ^ Dental Cavities, MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia, page accessed August 14, 2006.
44. ^ a b Epidemiology of Dental Disease, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed January 9, 2007.
45. ^ Suddick, Richard P. and Norman O. Harris. "Historical Perspectives of Oral Biology: A Series". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 1(2), pages 135-151, 1990.
46. ^ Healthy People: 2010. Html version hosted on Healthy People.gov website. Page accessed August 13, 2006.
47. ^ "Dental caries", from the Disease Control Priorities Project. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
48. ^ Touger-Decker, Riva and Cor van Loveren. Sugars and dental caries, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 2003, pages 881S–892S.
49. ^ Hardie, J.M. (1982). The microbiology of dental caries. Dental Update, 9, 199-208.
50. ^ Holloway, P.J. (1983). The role of sugar in the etiology of dental caries. Journal of Dentistry, 11, 189-213.
51. ^ a b Oral Health Topics: Cleaning your teeth and gums. Hosted on the American Dental Association website. Page accessed August 15, 2006.
52. ^ Introduction to Dental Plaque. Hosted on the Leeds Dental Institute Website, page accessed August 14, 2006.
53. ^ Thumbs down for electric toothbrush, hosted on the BBC News website, posted January 21, 2003. Page accessed January 23, 2007.
54. ^ Cate, A.R. Ten. "Oral Histology: development, structure, and function." 5th edition, 1998, p. 223. ISBN 0-8151-2952-1.
55. ^ Ross, Michael H., Gordon I. Kaye, and Wojciech Pawlina, 2003. "Histology: a text and atlas." 4th edition, p. 453. ISBN 0-683-30242-6.
56. ^ "Oral Health Topics: Dental Filling Options", hosted on the ADA website, page accessed May 8, 2007.
57. ^ "Prosthodontic Procedures", hosted on the The American College of Prosthodontists website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
58. ^ "Dental Implants", hosted on the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons website. Page accessed May 16, 2007.
59. ^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 50. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
60. ^ Ash, Major M. and Stanley J. Nelson, 2003. "Wheeler’s Dental Anatomy, Physiology, and Occlusion," 8th edition, p. 31.
61. ^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 51. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
62. ^ Syphilis: Complications, hosted on the Mayo Clinic website. Page accessed January 21, 2007.
63. ^ "Loss of Tooth Structure", hosted on the American Dental Hygiene Association website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
64. ^ "Abnormalities of Teeth", hosted on the University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
65. ^ Yip, Kevin H-K., Roger J. Smales, John A. Kaidonis. "The diagnosis and control of extrinsic acid erosion of tooth substance", hosted on the Academy of General Dentistry website. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
66. ^ Gandara B.K., Truelove E.L. "Diagnosis and Management of Dental Erosion", online version hosted on the The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice website. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, 1999 October; (1)1, pages 16-23. Page accessed April 25, 2007.
67. ^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 63. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
68. ^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 66. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
69. ^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 70. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
70. ^ Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 69. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
71. ^ a b Neville, B.W., D. Damm, C. Allen, J. Bouquot. Oral & Maxillofacial Pathology. Second edition. 2002. Page 85. ISBN 0-7216-9003-3.
72. ^ Amelogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
73. ^ Dentinogenesis imperfecta, hosted on the Genetics Home Reference website, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
74. ^ Cho, Shiu-yin, Conservative Management of Regional Odontodysplasia: Case Report, hosted on the Canadian Dental Association website. Issue 72(8): pp. 735–8. Page accessed April 1, 2007.
75. ^ The Permanent Canine Teeth, hosted on the University of Illinois at Chicago website. Page accessed February 5, 2007.
76. ^ Chris C. Pinney, The Illustrated Veterinary Guide for Dogs, Cats, Birds, and Exotic Pets (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: TAB Books, 1992), p. 187.
77. ^ Caceci, Thomas. Veterinary Histology with subtitle "Digestive System: Oral Cavity" found here.
78. ^ "Common Characteristics of Whale Teeth" here
79. ^ Encarta article found here and Randall-Bowman, whose link can be found here

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooth

Why I as a Pakistani, choose to support Obama, instead of McCain

2008-11-30T10:12:00.000-08:00

Why I as a Pakistani, choose to support Obama, instead of McCain
Posted by Teeth Maestro
October 9, 2008 | 552 views
Obama for Change

For a few days people must have noticed that I have starting sporting a button on my blog which loudly proclaims ‘I Support Obama‘, and consequentially many friends have questioned my reasoning to opt for the Democratic candidate instead of the sweet talking McCain. Firstly I accept the fact that as a non-American whatever I say or do will not matter on the outcome, but if there are still any undecided voters and are willing to be swayed by my position then so be it, but I feel its important to support the candidate which I feel could be best for Pakistan

The conclusion I have achieved is most definitely debatable, I choose to look beyond mere words and see a possible solution for the mess in Pakistan. For me Obama represents a fresh change in the White House, it is my understanding that they both propose ‘approximately’ the same line of action for Pakistan. Obama wishes to quickly clean up the terrorism threat in Pakistan, while McCain proposes a slow but extensively drawn out plan of action, which I feel actually means a long term American presence in Pakistan. If they are both generally coming with the same mindset then I feel I would carefully put my eggs into Obama’s basket.

My reasoning is based on a couple of articles that I contributed to Al-Jazeera Election coverage. The first was written immediately after the First Presidential debate while the next one just recently after the Vice Presidential face-off. I must admit that I was unable to physically watch the second presidential debate, but the transcripts I have read on Pakistan show the general position is fairly the same

Al-Jazeera English: Global voices: US foreign policy: In recent terms Pakistan has come under an extensive scrutiny and was important enough to come into discussion during the first presidential debate. McCain kicked off by offering a more soft and understandable approach. He suggested taking the people of Pakistan into confidence on the “war on terror” and moving forward hand-in-hand to eradicate the menace of terrorism.

“We’ve got to get the support of the people of Pakistan … he [Obama] said that he would launch military strikes into Pakistan,” he said. Obama quickly reacted: “Nobody talked about attacking Pakistan. If the United States has al-Qaeda, bin Laden [and] top-level lieutenants in our sights - and Pakistan is unable or unwilling to act - then we should take them out.”

McCain is definitely on the right track to talk about confidence building measures with the people of Pakistan, which at the moment is at its lowest in ages, but contrary to what he suggests, Bush administration has repeatedly failed to do exactly that in eight years, for which he must also accept responsibility. Might we suspect these to be glamourous words just to win an election? I hope not, but eight years of uselessness will not salvage a sinking boat.

Committed to change?

Senator Obama on the other hand seems more committed to change, he suggests a strong hand to remove the terrormongers once in for all. It took the Americans a few months to hunt down Saddam Hussein, but it’s been seven years and the mountains in Afghanistan have yet to cough up Osama Bin Ladin and his deputies only to now have them hiding in Pakistan.

If this was not gross mismanagement then I wonder what is. It was good to see Obama lash out at McCain for supporting a dictator in Pakistan, saying “We had a 20th century mindset that said ‘well, you know, he may be a dictator, but he’s our dictator’ and as a consequence, we lost legitimacy in Pakistan.”

McCain responded “I don’t think that Senator Obama understands that there was a failed state in Pakistan when [former president Pervez] Musharraf came to power. Everybody who was around then, and had been there, and knew about it knew that it was a failed state.” This was a very lame response by McCain, as it definitely displayed the failures in the Bush administrations, failure to gauge the problem and the wrong decision to support the wrong individuals.

They continued to fork over billions of dollars without proper accountability and supported ‘their friend’ till he coughed up his last breath and succumbed to democracy.

No clear ‘victor’

I must admit that apart from picking apart a few statements from within the debate, I do not come forth with a clear victor in regards to the issues of Pakistan. Only in an attempt to bring this presidential debate into a wider perspective for the people in Pakistan, one just feels there is a desperate need for change.

Pakistan stands at a fork in the road. If the same old policies are followed, with the same blind-sighted relationship maintained with crooks and dictators running our country, the menacing war on terror will only get worse. Obama represents a fresh change, as per my neutral review of the debate, it is my understanding that if they both support approximately the same line of action for Pakistan, I would carefully put my eggs into Obama’s basket.

He talks with more commitment to the challenges ahead while simultaneously suggesting a “tough guy” approach on Pakistan.
http://www.teeth.com.pk/blog/2008/10/09/why-i-support-obama

British Teeth

2008-11-30T10:10:00.001-08:00

night note
British Teeth
By Luke Plunkett, 7:40 AM on Mon Nov 3 2008, 1,521 views

To: Crecente
From: Luke

Today, Ash had the day off. Some Japanese public holiday, no doubt related to something noble, ancient and revered. Tomorrow, I have the day off. For a very Australian public holiday. Related to a horse race. The Melbourne Cup. We all ("we" being the people of Melbourne and the Australian Capital Territory) get the day off so we can take part in our own noble and revered traditions. Namely, gambling and getting drunk during the day.

Oh, and the headline? Has nothing to do with the dental standards of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. I just always thought it'd be a great name for a racehorse. British Teeth.

Here's what you missed while counting sheep:
Universal Buys Rights To EA's Dante's Inferno
The PlayStation 3 Vending Machine
Game Boy Lives On As Home For Amazing Boxing Cartoon
Microsoft Top Brass Not Exactly Happy With XBL Downtime
Read More: night note, note

http://kotaku.com/5074785/british-teeth

Duncan Hunter on Obama: 'I think he has great teeth'

2008-11-30T10:07:00.000-08:00

Duncan Hunter on Obama: 'I think he has great teeth'
By John Amato Friday Oct 24, 2008 6:15pm

HB-Hunter-Good-Teeth-102408
icon Download | Play icon Download | Play (h/t Heather)

Oh boy, where to begin? Tweety asks Duncan Hunter about John McCain's chances in the general election after a new NY Times poll came out saying that Obama has a 13 pt lead: 52-39. Hunter says McCain was way down before and while not eloquent, he knows how to spell the word "win" and his foreign policy background is a winning issue. Typical surrogate talk and then Matthews brought up the fact that the Rick Davis-led campaign never focused on Iraq, but instead hit the very petty, low brow personal attack points that we've seen many times before.

Matthews: ....all these diversions they've used. The fact that he might be anti-American...this whole thing about socialist. Joe the plumber. What's that got to do with the security issue you say?

Hunter: I think John is wrong in that case. I think he has been tested. He was tested on Iraq. And here was a guy with great teeth, great speaking style, excellent politician and a superb debater, but when it came to the major issues...

Matthews:...we just heard from Congressman Hunter that the winning piece of this man's vocabulary, the winning piece of his resume is that he has a nice smile, he has good teeth. Is that your assessment of Barack Obama, he's the first African American with a real shot to be President of the United States and is 13 points ahead of his Republican rival, that he has good teeth?

Hunter: Also a good debater and very eloquent.

Sounds like Duncan Hunter is describing an award winning horse. Even Matthews caught on and when he called Hunter on the "teeth" remark, Hunter didn't try to say he misspoke, only that Obama is a good debater and very eloquent.
http://crooksandliars.com/john-amato/duncan-hunter-obama-i-think-he-has-grea

Merawat Gigi dan Mulut Balita

2008-11-30T09:54:00.000-08:00

Sunday, November 30, 2008
Merawat Gigi dan Mulut Balita
Perawatan gigi dan mulut pada masa balita dan anak ternyata cukup menentukan kesehatan gigi dan mulut mereka pada tingkatan usia selanjutnya. Beberapa penyakit gigi dan mulut bisa mereka alami bila perawatan tidak dilakukan dengan baik. Di antaranya caries (lubang pada permukaan gigi), ginggivitis (radang gusi), dan sariawan.

Untuk mencegahnya, beberapa hal berikut perlu mendapatkan perhatian orang tua:

1. Kurangi konsumsi makanan manis dan mudah melekat pada gigi seperti permen atau coklat. Namun melarang sama sekali dapat menimbulkan dampak psikis.
2. Ajak mereka menggosok gigi secara teratur dan benar pada pagi, sore, dan menjelang tidur. Lebih baik lagi bila dilakukan setiap usai makan. Biasakan mereka berkumur-kumur setelah makan makanan manis.
3. Siapkan makanan kaya kalsium (ikan & susu), fluor (teh, daging sapi & sayuran hijau), fosfor, serta vitamin A (wortel), C (bebuahan), D (susu), dan E (kecambah). Mineral dan vitamin tersebut diperlukan untuk pertumbuhan gigi mereka.
4. Jaga higiene oral mereka dengan baik. Bila ada karang gigi segera bawa ke dokter gigi untuk dibersihkan.
5. Ajak mereka memeriksakan gigi enam bulan sekali.
6. Bila tiba-tiba mengeluh sakit gigi, suruh mereka berkumur dengan air garam hangat dan lubang ditutup kapas berminyak cengkeh. Bila sariawan, suruh mereka berkumur dengan air rebusan sirih dan garam yang hangat. Lalu, bawa ke dokter/klinik gigi.

http://duniaanak.rawins.com/2008/11/merawat-gigi-dan-mulut-balita.html

गीगी wikipwdia

2008-11-30T01:13:00.000-08:00

Gigi
Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
Langsung ke: navigasi, cari
Untuk kegunaan lainnya, lihat Gigi (disambiguasi)

Bagian dari gigi molar manusiaGigi adalah bagian keras yang terdapat di dalam mulut dari banyak vertebrata. Mereka memiliki struktur yang bervariasi yang memungkinkan mereka untuk melakukan banyak tugas. Fungsi utama dari gigi adalah untuk merobek dan mengunyah makanan dan pada beberapa hewan, terutama karnivora, sebagai senjata. Akar dari gigi tertutup oleh gusi. Gigi memiliki struktur pelindung yang disebut email gigi, yang membantu mencegah lubang di gigi. Pulp dalam gigi menciut dan dentin terdeposit di tempatnya.

Gigi merupakan bagian paling membedakan di jenis mamalia yang berbeda, dan salah satu yang bisa menjadi fosil dengan baik. Paleontologis menggunakannya untuk mengidentifikasi jenis fosil dan seringkali hubungan di antaranya. Bentuk gigi berhubungan dengan jenis makanan hewan tersebut. Misalnya herbivora memiliki banyak gigi geraham untuk mengunyah karena rumput sulit untuk dicerna. Karnivora membutuhkan taring untuk membunuh dan merobek, dan karena daging mudah untuk dicerna, maka mereka dapat menelan makanan tersebut tanpa membutuhkan geraham untuk mengunyah makanan tersebut terlebih dahulu.

Daftar isi [sembunyikan]
1 Bagian-bagian gigi
2 Jenis gigi
3 Lihat pula
4 Pranala luar

[sunting] Bagian-bagian gigi
Mahkota gigi atau corona, merupakan bagian yang tampak di atas gusi. Terdiri atas:

Lapisan email, merupakan lapisan yang paling keras.
Tualng gigi (dentin), di dalamnya terdapat saraf dan pembuluh darah.
Rongga gigi (pulpa), merupakan bagian antara corona dan radiks.
Leher gigi atau kolum, merupakan bagian yang berada di dalam gusi.

Akar gigi atau radiks, merupakan bagian yang tertanam pada tulang rahang. Akar gigi melekat pada tulang rahang dengan perantaraan semen gigi. Semen gigi melapisi akar gigi dan membantu menahan gigi agar tetap melekat pada gusi. Terdiri atas:

Lapisan semen, merupakan pelindung akar gigi dalam gusi.
Gusi, merupakan tempat tumbuh gigi.

[sunting] Jenis gigi
Berdasarkan masa pertumbuhan:

Gigi susu yaitu gigi yang tumbuh mulai usia 6 bulan. Jumlah terbanyak 20 buah.
Gigi tetap/permanen yaitu pengganti gigi susu yang berangsur-angsur tanggal. Paling banyak berjumlah 32 buah.
Berdasarkan bentuk:

Gigi seri berfungsi menggigit atau memotong makanan.
Gigi taring berfungsi merobek atau mencabik makanan.
Geraham depan dan geraham belakang berfungsi mengunyah atau melumatkan makanan.

[sunting] Lihat pula
Gigi bungsu
Gigi kuda
Terapi fluorida membantu gigi tetap kuat
Peri gigi
Gigi anak
Gigi tikus
Gigi palsu

gigi

2008-11-30T01:11:00.000-08:00

Newsgigi ajak kita meniti “jalan kebenaran”
21 Aug 2008 8:35am
Ramadhan tahun 2008 ini GIGI meluncurkan “Jalan Kebenaran”, album religinya yang ke 4. Berbeda dengan 3 album sebelumnya di mana GIGI banyak membawakan lagu orang dengan aransemen ala GIGI, di album baru ini semua lagunya ciptaan GIGI. Dengan kata lain jika dahulu GIGI “jualan” aransemen, sekarang “jualan” lagu utuh dengan aransemen dan lirik yang ditulis sendiri.

“Ini yang membuat album kali ini istimewa,” kata Dhani Pette, komandan POS Entertainment, manajemen GIGI.

Album Jalan Kebenaran ini juga menandai lepasnya GIGI dari Sony-BMG. “Ya, mulai tahun ini album GIGI diproduksi oleh POS Record. Tetapi distribusinya tetap lewat Sony-BMG, sebab merekalah yang mempunyai infrastrukturnya,” kata Dhani.

Dengan lepasnya GIGI dari Sony-BMG Dhani lebih leluasa “menjual” GIGI. Maksudnya soal hak cipta dan hak-hak lain sudah tidak ada masalah lagi. Tidak ada pihak ketiga yang mesti dilibatkan dalam setiap kontrak GIGI dengan produk.

Karena alasan ini pula banyak lagu Ramadhan GIGI yang dipakai dalam sinetron dan film layar lebar, bahkan sebelum album itu diluncurkan.

Deddy Mizwar, misalnya memakai lagu “Rinduku Cintamu” untuk sinetronnya dengan judul yang sama. Selama Ramadhan, sinetron ini diputar di SCTV pukul 21.00.

Sutradara Ayat-ayat Cinta, Hanung Bramantyo juga meminta lagu GIGI untuk film layar lebarnya yang berjudul “Doa yang Mengancam.” Kedua lagu itu adalah “Gerbang Cintamu, dan “Dosa Ini.” (baca track list album Jalan Kebenaran di bawah)

Sinemart memilih lagu “Jalan Kebenaran” untuk sinetron Ramadhan mereka. Sedangkan Astro senang dengan
http://www.gigionline.com/v2/detail.php?idnews=101

हिस्तोलोगी gigi

2008-11-30T01:07:00.000-08:00

SISTEM PENCERNAAN

Sistem pencernaan terdiri atas : - saluran pencernaan
- kelenjar-kelenjar yang berhubungan
Fungsi :
a. ingesti dan digesti makanan
b. absorbsi sari makanan
c. eliminasi sisa makanan
Langkah-langkah proses pencernaan makanan:
1. Pencernaan di mulut dan rongga mulut: makanan digiling menjadi kecil-kecil oleh gigi dan dibasahi oleh saliva
2. Disalurkan melalui faring dan esophagus
3. Pencernaan di lambung dan usus halus: dalam usus halus diubah menjadi asaam-asam amino, monosakarida, gliserida dan unsure-unsur dasarnya yang lain.
4. Absorbsi air dalam usus besar: akibatnya isi yang tidak dicerna menjadi setengah padat (veses).
5. Veses dikeluarkan dari dalam tubuh melalui kloaka (bila ada) kemudian ke anus.

Organ-organ asesori (organ tambahan): a. Gigi b. Lidah c. Kelenjar ludah d. Kelenjar-kelenjar pencernaan di luar saluran pencernaan (hati dan pancreas) Struktur saluran pencernaan tiap vertebrata berbeda-beda atau disesuaikan dengan bentuk tubuh, jenis makanan, dan fungsi sistem pencernaan. A Mulut dan Rongga Mulut Dalam pengertian luas istilah mulut sama artinya dengan rongga mulut. Rongga mulut dimulai dari mulut dan berakhir pada faring. Letak mulut pada posisi terminal dan ventral, sedangkan batas rongga mulut berupa epitel berlapis gepeng tanpa tanduk. Sel-sel superfisialnya berinti dan mempunyai granula-granula keratin di bagian dalamnya. Dalam rongga mulut terdapat kelenjar-kelenjar mucus, berfungsi untuk menghasilkan mucus sebagai pembasah dan pelicin makanan. Atap mulut terdiri dari palatum keras dan lunak, diliputi oleh epitel berlapis gepeng. Palatum keras adalah membran mukosa yang melekat pada jaringan tulang, sedangkan palatum lunak mempunyai pusat otot rangka dan banyak kelenjar mukosa pada lapisan submukosanya. Fungsi mulut adalah sebagai penerima makanan. Mulut beberapa hewan sebagai pengambil makanan karena terdapat rahang maksila dan mandibula. Organ-organ didalam rongga mulut antara lain: gigi, lidah, dan kelenjar ludah. B. Lidah Lidah merupakan massa jaringan pengikat dsan otot lurik yang diliputi oleh membran mukosa. Membran mukosa melekat erat pada otot karena jaringan penyambung lamina propia menembus ke dalam ruang-ruang antar berkas-berkas otot. Pada bagian bawah lidah membran mukosanya halus. Fungsi lidah: - untuk mengaduk makanan yang dikunyah - menelan makanan - mengontrol suara dan dalam mengucapkan kata-kata Permukaan atas lidah mengandung banyak tonjolan-tonjolan epitel mulut dan lamina propia (yang disebut papilla). Terdapat empat jenis papilla: a. Filiformis - terdapat di bagian posterior - bebtuk penonjolan konis, sangat banyak diseluruh permukaan lidah - epitel tidak mengandung putting pengecap - epitel berambut b. Fungiformis - di bagian anterior dan diantara filiformis - menyerupai jamur karena menpunyai tangkai sempit dan permukaan yang halus, bagian atas melebar - mengandung putting kecap, tersebar di permukaan atas - epitel berlapis pipih tak menanduk c. Foliatel - pada pangkal lidah bvagian lateral, terdapat beberapa tonjolan-tonjolan padat - bentuk: sirkumvalata - banyak putting kecap d. Circumfalate - papillae yang sangat besar dengan permukaannya yang pipih meluas di atas papillae lain, susunan seperti parit - tersebar di daerah “V” bagian posterior lidah - banyak kelenjar mukosa dan serosin - banyak putting kecap yang terdapat di sepanjang sisi papilla C. Kelenjar Ludah Kelenjar ludah terbentuk dari jaringan epitel dan menghasilkan secret. Ciri-ciri: - sel glandularis - duktus interkalaris - saluran bercolak - menghasilakan mucus dan enzim amilase Ada 3 pasang kelenjar ludah menurut tempatnya: 1. Glandula parotid (kelenjar bawah telinga) - sel penyusun: sel serous - bentuk kelenjar asiner bercabang majemuk - bermuara dekat gigi molar atas yang kedua 2. Glandula submaksiksilaris (kelenjar bawah rahang) - bermuara di dekat pangkal lidah - bentuk kelenjar tubuloasiner bercabang majemuk - sel penyusun: sel serous (banyak) dan sel mukus. Sel serous, inti agak banyak dan sitoplasmanya mengandung butir-butir zimogen. Sel mukus, berinti gepeng dan terletak di bagian basal. 3. Glandula subligualis (kelenjar bawah lidah - bermuara dekat pangkal lidah - bentuk kelenjar tubuloasiner bercabang majemuk - sel penyusun: sel mukus D. Gigi Ciri-ciri: - Tersusun dalam 2 lengkung - Terletak pada maxilla dan mandibula - Masing-masing gigi terdiri atas bvagian yang menonjol di atas ginggiva (atau gum) yaitu mahkota dan di bawah ginggiva yaitu akar (mempertahankan gigi dalam lekuk tulang atau alveolus). Tempat peralihan mahkota ke akar sampai leher. - Tiap gigi mempunyai rongga sentral, rongga pulpa - Terdiri dari bagian nonmineral: pulpa, dan 3 bagian bermineral: email, dentin, sementum. a. Dentin Dentin merupakan jaringan kalsifikasi yang mirip tulang, tetapi lebih keras karena mengandung banyak garam-garam kalsium. Dentin terutama terdiri atas serabut-serabut kolagen, glikosaminoglikans, dan garam-garam kalsium (80%) berat kering dalam bentuk kristal-kristal hidroksiapatit. Dentin peka terhadap banyak rangsngan seperti panas, dingin, asam, trauma dan memberi respon terhadap semua rangsang sakit. Matriks organiknya disintesis oleh sel-sel odontoblas. b. Email Email meripakan struktur paling keras dari tubuh dan banyak mengandung kalsium. Terdiri atas 97% garam-garam kalsium dan 3% zat organic. Berasal dari epitel ectoderm, sedangkan struktur lain gigi berasal dari mesoderm. Matriks amail disekresi oleh sel-sel (ameloblas). Email terdiri atas struktur batang yang berbentuk prisma atau toraks heksagonal, prisma email yang berikatan satu sama lain dengan zat interprismatis. c. Pulpa Pulpa gigi terdiri dari jaringan pnyambung jarang. Unsur-unsur utamanyaadalah serabut-serabut kolagen halus yang tersusun asimetris dan substansia dasar yang mengandung glikosaminoglikans. Pulpa merupakan jaringan yang sangat banyak mengandung persyarafan dan pembuluh darah, serta banyak terhadap fibroblast. - Struktur-struktur pertahanan gigi dalam lekuk tulang maxilla dan mandibula terdiri atas sementum, membranaperidentalis, tulang alveolar dan ginggiva. - Jumlah dan distribusi a. vertebrata rendah, mempunyai jumlah gigi sangat banyak b. pisces, mempunyai gigi pada tulang rahang, palatin, dan faring c. Amphibia, mempunyai gigi yang melekat pada tulang vomer, rahang atas, dan tulang palatin d. Reptilia, gigi terdapat pada tulang palatin atau di rahang atas dan rahang bawah e. Aves dan mamalia, gigi terdapat pada rahang atas dan rahang bawah - Derajat Permanen a. Vertebrata, mempunyai gigi pelifiodonbi (gigi yang terus berganti) b. Mamalia, mempunyai gigi difiodonti (gigi berganti 2 kali), yaitu gigi susu dan gigi permanent. c. Platypus( monotremata), mempunyai gigi monofiodonti (gigi yang tak berganti). - Cara Pelekatan Gigi melekat pada tulang rahang dengan jaringan ikat fibrosa. Cara pelekatan gigi terdiri dari 3 cara, yaitu: a. Akrodonti : melekat di puncak tulang rahang, misalnya terdapat pada Teleoster b. Pleurodonti : melekat pada sisi dalam tulang rahang, misalnya terdapat pada katak, necturus, dan kadal c. Teledonti : akar gigi tertanam dalam alveoli (sokel) tulang rahang, misalnya pada buaya, burung bergigi, mamalia dan beberapa ikan. - Morfologi gigi, terdiri dari: a. Homodonti : gigi yang bentuknya serupa, misalnya pada vertebrata, mamalia b. Heterodonti: gigi yang bentuknya beda misal, mamalia yang mempunayi morfologi gigi sebagai berikut: 1. Gigi seri (insisivus) 2. gigi taring (kaninus) 3. gigi geraham depan (premolar) 4. gigi geraham belakang (molar) a. Jumlah gigi manusia 32 buah. 2-1-2-3 ½ belahan rahang atas 2-1-2-3 ½ belahan rahang bawah I K P M b. Gigi kelinci 3-1-3-1 3-1-2-1 c. Kucing 2-0-3-3 1-0-2-3 - Histologi gigi Pada mamalia tiap gigi terdiri dari 3 bagian, yaitu: a. Mahkota (korana) dilapisi email b. Leher (serviks) c. Akar (radiks) Kelenjar-kelenjar Pencernaan di luar Saluran Pencernaan a. Hati (hepar) Hati merupakan kelenjar ynag terbesar di dalam tubuh. Fungsi hati antara lain: - mengahasilkan empedu (sebagai kelenjar eksokrin) yang terkumpul dalam kandung empedu, - menyimpan lemak dan glikogen serta albumin, - mensintesis protein plasma darah, - detoksifikasi zat-zat toksis, - merombak eritrosit yang rusak, - eliminasi asam amino menjadi urea, menyimpan vitamin A dan B dan berperan dalam metabolisme karbohidrat dan lemak - menghasilkan suatu hormone Hati terdiri atas beberapa belahan (lobus). Masing-masing lobus dibina oleh ratusan ribu lobulus yang berbentuk heksagonal. Tiap lobulus dilapisi oleh jaringan ikat interlobular yang disebut kapsula Glisson. Pada bagian tebgah lobulus hati terdapat vena sentralis, pita-pita sel hati yang bercabang atau berantomosis tersusun radier terhadap vena sentralis. Diantar pita-pita sel hati terdapat sinusoid-sinusoid darah yang tampak seperti celah-celah atau rongga. Pada dinding sinusoid terdapat sel kapiler yang tergolong sebagai makrofage. Sudut antara lobuli-lobuli yang bersebelahan disebut segitiga Kiernann yang berisi saluran porta, yaitu arteri, vena dan saluran empedu interlobular. Sel hati (hepatosit) berbentuk polyhedral, berinti satu (75%) atau dua (25%). Sitoplasma mengandung banyak butir glikogen. Sel-sel inilah yang menghasilkan empedu. Untuk sementara empedu disimpan dalam kandung empedu(vesika fellea), disina empedu tersebut menjadi kental karena airnya diserap kembali aleh dinding kandung empedu. Hormon kholesistokinin mengatur pengeluaran empedu ke usus halus. Oleh ductus sistikus empedu disalurkan ke duktus kholedokhus yang bermuara di duodenum, dan di tempat tersebut terjadi pengemulsian lemak. Kandung empedu berkembang pada kebanyakan vertebrata. Ikan lamprey, kebanyakan burung, tikus dan ikan paus tidak mempunyai kandung empedu hanya mengkonsumsi sedikit lemak dalam makanannya. Manusia masih dapat hidup selama bertahun-tahun setelah kandung empedunya dibuang melalui pembedahan dengan syarat harus menghindari lemak dalam dietnya. Pankreas Ciri-ciri: - Kelenjar ini hanya terdapat pada vertebrata dan semua hewan vertebrata memilikinya. - Pada Pisces, Amphibia dan Reptilia pancreas terletak di antara lambung dan duodenum, sedangkan pada Aves dan Mammalia terletak diantara parsasenden dan desenden duodeni. - Merupakan organ majemuk, karena menpunyai fungsi sebagai kelenjar eksokrin maupun sebagai kelenjar endokrin. - Bagian eksokrin. Merupakan kumpulan asini pancreas. Tiap asini berlumen sempit, dengan sel-sel sekretori berbentuk pyramid. Bagian ini menghasilkan enzim protease, nuclease, amylase dan lipase, Bagian endokrin. Merupakan pulau-pulau Langerhans, tersebar diantara kelenjar eksokrin. Bagian ini terbentuk oleh sel, sel बी।

http://sharetoon.blogspot.com/2008/11/sistem-pencernaan_05.html

Tips Bagi Kamu yang Sudah dan Akan Menggunakan Kawat Gigi (Behel)

2008-11-30T01:02:00.000-08:00

November 18, 2008 By: TM-Admin Category: Tips Sehari-hari

Bagi Kamu yang ingin mengenakan behel dan membuat gigi menjadi lebih rapi simak informasi menarik berikut ini:
= Dokter Khusus
Hanya dokter gigi tertentu yang bisa memasangkan behel yakni dokter spesialis orthodonti. Jadi jangan sembarangan pergi ke dokter gigi pastikan dia merupakan ahlinya.
= Pakai Karena Kebutuhan
Ini sangat penting bila kamu ingin memakai behel pastikan bahwa gigi kamu memang rusak. Jangan hanya karena ingin ikut tren atau gaya kamu ikut-ikutan memakainya karena memakai behel tidak semudah kelihatannya. Orang yang boleh mengenakannya adalah mereka yang memiliki gigi yang letaknya tidak pada tempatnya, bertumpuk dan berjejal-jejal sehingga kekurangan tempat, tumbuh terlalu jarang sehingga ada celah di antara gigi-gigi, atau letaknya terlalu maju atau mundur. Karena fungsi behel adalah merapikan gigi.
= Jenis Behel/Kawat Gigi
Ada berbagai jenis behel ada yang terbuat dari metal, clear/transparan yang berwarna seperti warna gigi. Untuk clear, bahannya bisa terbuat dari composite, porselin, atau plastik. Atau ada juga behel dengan penahan karet/karet pengikat bracket (kotak yang ditempel di gigi) ini paling disukai oleh kaula muda karena bantalan karetnya bisa berwarna-warni.
= Efek Behel
Setidaknya ada beberapa efek yang ditimbulkan bila mengenakan behel yakni, rasa sakit ketika pertama kali menggunakan behel. Lubang gigi dan karang gigi akan cepat terjadi karena tidak menyikat menyikat gigi dan menjaga kebersihan mulut. Belum lagi efek pada jariangan lunak, terutama pada gusi bibir dan pipi lebih mudah timbul radang gusi dan sariawan.
= Tahapan Pemakaian
Sebelum mengenakan behel ada beberapa tahapan yang mesti dilakukan yakni, membuat cetakan model gigi, memotret gigi, merontgen gigi, kepala, serta wajah pasien secara keseluruhan. Ini semua agar perawatan benar-benar sempurna dan tidak asal-asalan karena biasanya ketika dipakaikan behel wajah jadi berubah. Biasanya gigi yang menumpuk-numpuk terjadi karena rahang kecil, jadi giginya harus dikurangi beberapa.
= Hal Yang Dilarang
Mencoba melepas atau menyetel kawat gigi yang sudah dipasang karena bisa merubah susunan yang telah ditetapkan. Memakan permen karet, permen keras, daging yang liat, keripik, kerupuk yang keras. Mengutakatik sendiri bracket yang lepas atau kawat yang menusuk gigi. Ini sangat berbahaya hubungi dokter untuk penangulangannya.
= Wajib Dilakukan
Ada beberapa hal yang wajib dilakukan bila kamu menggunakan behel yakni, rajin membersihkan gigi setiap makan, selalu sediakan tusuk gigi. Serta jangan lupa untuk membawa sikat gigi untuk bersihkan sisa-sisa makanan yang nempel di bracket. Gunakan sikat gigi khusus untuk perawatan orthodonti atau sikat gigi anak -anak, yang bulu sikatnya lembut agar tidak merusak bracket. Kontrol gigi sesuai jadwal yang ditentukan dokter. Iris kecil-kecil semua makanan yang masuk dan kunyah secara perlahan-lahan. Bila memakai karet elastik atau head gear, pasang sesuai dengan petunjuk dokter gigi. (rb/pit)
.:rileks.com:।

http://www.tipsmanfaat.com/tips-bagi-kamu-yang-sudah-dan-akan-menggunakan-kawat-gigi-behel.html

Ke Dentist

2008-11-30T01:00:00.001-08:00

Kemaren anterin An2 ke dentist soalnya gigi permanennya udah numbuh, dan numbuhnya nga normal alias dibelakang gigi susu , karena gigi permanen numbuh di belakang gigi susu jadi gigi susunya goyang.

Menurut Dentistnya Gigi permanennya An2 bakalan nga beraturan karna rahangnya gede, gigi susunya masih kuat dan dempet2 dan parahnya gigi permanen yg baru tumbuh pada gede2 alamat ntar kudu pake behel . Padahal gw demen bgt ama gigi susunya yg rata bgt trus karna dia rajin gosok gigi jadi gigi susunya putih bersih nga kyk emaknya . Sebenarnya gigi susu bagusnya jarang2 jadi pertumbuhaan gigi permanen akan rata .

Sebelum nyabut gigi ke dentist An2 nanya2 dulu ke keponakan gw yg laen sakit nga kalo giginya dicabut trus pada bilang sakit, tambah jiper dienya. Pas sampe di dentist agak2 takut disuruh buka mulut malah tutup mata , nga taunya cuma diolesin gel strawberry abis itu langsung dicabut pas disuruh kumur ngeliat darah langsung air matanya berlinang ekekekek... takut katanya darahnya kog banyak bgt . Pas liat An2 nangis si Phing yg tadinya anteng and pengen sekalian diperiksa giginya jadi ikutan nangis dan nga mau di periksa and minta keluar ruangan

Dibawah penampakan gigi permanennya, menjorok kedalam ya dan sampingnya belum boleh dicabut ।

http://angelo-angelina.blogspot.com/2008/11/ke-dentist.html

kerusakan gigi pada ibu hamil

2008-11-30T00:57:00.000-08:00

Ditulis pada Nopember 18, 2008 oleh bayikita

Sumber artikel dari http://www.pdgi-online.com dan juga ada di www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/1002/06/1005.htm

Dok, kenapa jika saya sedang hamil, gigi dan gusi seringkali terasa sakit. Gusi mudah berdarah di beberapa tempat dan bentuknya berbenjol-benjol?

Demikian keluhan ibu hamil ketika mengunjungi dokter gigi. Kehadiran anak bagi setiap keluarga adalah sesuatu yang sangat istimewa dan dinanti-nantikan kehadirannya. Kehamilan adalah masa-masa yang penuh perhatian, baik untuk ibu hamil juga si jabang bayi.

Pada saat ini ibu hamil betul-betul harus menjaga kondisi kesehatan dengan baik, mengonsumsi berbagai jenis makanan dan vitamin demi kesehatan ibu dan bayinya. Kehamilan adalah suatu proses fisiologis yang dapat menimbulkan perubahan-perubahan pada tubuh wanita, baik fisik maupun psikis.

Keadaan ini disebabkan adanya perubahan hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Saat kehamilan disertai berbagai keluhan lain seperti ngidam, mual, muntah termasuk keluhan sakit gigi dan mulut. Kondisi gigi dan mulut ibu hamil seringkali ditandai dengan adanya pembesaran gusi yang mudah berdarah karena jaringan gusi merespons secara berlebihan terhadap iritasi lokal.

Bentuk iritasi lokal ini berupa karang gigi, gigi berlubang, susunan gigi tidak rata atau adanya sisa akar gigi yang tidak dicabut. Hal ini sangat berbeda dengan keadaan ibu pada saat tidak hamil.

Pembesaran gusi ibu hamil biasa dimulai pada trisemester pertama sampai ketiga masa kehamilan. Keadaan ini disebabkan aktivitas hormonal yaitu hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Hormon progesteron pengaruhnya lebih besar terhadap proses inflamasi/peradangan. Pembesaran gusi akan mengalami penurunan pada kehamilan bulan ke-9 dan beberapa hari setelah melahirkan. Keadaannya akan kembali normal seperti sebelum hamil.

Pembesaran gusi ini dapat mengenai/menyerang pada semua tempat atau beberapa tempat (single/multiple) bentuk membulat, permukaan licin mengilat, berwarna merah menyala, konsistensi lunak, mudah berdarah bila kena sentuhan.

Pembesaran gusi ini di dunia kedokteran gigi disebut gingivitis gravidarum/pregnancy gravidarum/hyperplasia gravidarum sering muncul pada trisemester pertama kehamilan. Keadaan di atas tidaklah harus sama bagi setiap ibu hamil.

Faktor penyebab timbulnya gingivitis pada masa kehamilan dapat dibagi 2 bagian, yaitu penyebab primer dan sekunder.

1. Penyebab primer

Iritasi lokal seperti plak merupakan penyebab primer gingivitis masa kehamilan sama halnya seperti pada ibu yang tidak hamil, tetapi perubahan hormonal yang menyertai kehamilan dapat memperberat reaksi peradangan pada gusi oleh iritasi lokal.

Iritasi lokal tersebut adalah kalkulus/plak yang telah mengalami pengapuran, sisa-sisa makanan, tambalan kurang baik, gigi tiruan yang kurang baik.

Saat kehamilan terjadi perubahan dalam pemeliharaan kebersihan gigi dan mulut yang bisa disebabkan oleh timbulnya perasaan mual, muntah, perasaan takut ketika menggosok gigi karena timbul perdarahan gusi atau ibu terlalu lelah dengan kehamilannya sehingga ibu malas menggosok gigi. Keadaan ini dengan sendirinya akan menambah penumpukan plak sehingga memperburuk keadaan.

2. Penyebab sekunder

Kehamilan merupakan keadan fisiologis yang menyebabkan perubahan keseimbangan hormonal, terutama perubahan hormon estrogen dan progesteron. Peningkatan konsentrasi hormon estrogen dan progesteron pada masa kehamilan mempunyai efek bervariasi pada jaringan, di antaranya pelebaran pembuluh darah yang mengakibatkan bertambahnya aliran darah sehingga gusi menjadi lebih merah, bengkak dan mudah mengalami perdarahan.

Akan tetapi, jika kebersihan mulut terpelihara dengan baik selama kehamilan, perubahan mencolok pada jaringan gusi jarang terjadi. Keadaan klinis jaringan gusi selama kehamilan tidak berbeda jauh dengan jaringan gusi wanita yang tidak hamil, di antaranya;

a. Warna gusi, jaringan gusi yang mengalami peradangan berwarna merah terang sampai kebiruan, kadang-kadang berwarna merah tua.
b. Kontur gusi, reaksi peradangan lebih banyak terlihat di daerah sela-sela gigi dan pinggiran gusi terlihat membulat.
c. Konsistensi, daerah sela gigi dan pinggiran gusi terlihat bengkak, halus dan mengkilat. Bagian gusi yang membengkak akan melekuk bila ditekan, lunak, dan lentur.
d. Risiko perdarahan, warna merah tua menandakan bertambahnya aliran darah, keadaan ini akan meningkatkan risiko perdarahan gusi.
e. Luas peradangan, radang gusi pada masa kehamilan dapat terjadi secara lokal maupun menyeluruh. Proses peradangan dapat meluas sampai di bawah jaringan periodontal dan menyebabkan kerusakan lebih lanjut pada struktur tersebut.

Tindakan penanggulangan/perawatan radang gusi pada ibu hamil dibagi dalam 4 tahap, yaitu:

1. Tahap jaringan lunak, iritasi lokal merupakan penyebab timbulnya gingivitis. Oleh karena itu, tujuan dari penanggulangan gingivitis selama kehamilan adalah menghilangkan semua jenis iritasi lokal yang ada seperti plak, kalkulus, sisa makanan, perbaikan tambalan, dan perbaikan gigi tiruan yang kurng baik.

2. Tahap fungsional, tahap ini melakukan perbaikan fungsi gigi dan mulut seperti pembuatan tambalan pada gigi yang berlubang, pembuatan gigi tiruan, dll.

3. Tahap sistemik, tahap ini sangat diperhatikan sekali kesehatan ibu hamil secara menyeluruh, melakukan perawatan dan pencegahan gingivitis selama kehamilan. Keadaan ini penting diketahui karena sangat menentukan perawatan yang akan dilakukan.

4. Tahap pemeliharaan, tahap ini dilakukan untuk mencegah kambuhnya penyakit periodontal setelah perawatan. Tindakan yang dilakukan adalah pemeliharaan kebersihan mulut di rumah dan pemeriksaan secara periodik kesehatan jaringan periodontal.

Sebagai tindakan pencegahan agar gingivitis selama masa kehamilan tidak terjadi, setiap ibu hamil harus memperhatikan kebersihan mulut di rumah atau pemeriksaan secara berkala oleh dokter gigi sehingga semua iritasi lokal selama kehamilan dapat terdeteksi lebih dini dan dapat dihilangkan secepat mungkin. (drg. R. Ginandjar Aslama Maulid)

Penulis adalah dokter gigi di RS Al Islam Bandung।

kerusakan gigi pada ibu hamil

Ditulis pada Nopember 18, 2008 oleh bayikita

Sumber artikel dari http://www.pdgi-online.com dan juga ada di www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/1002/06/1005.htm

Dok, kenapa jika saya sedang hamil, gigi dan gusi seringkali terasa sakit. Gusi mudah berdarah di beberapa tempat dan bentuknya berbenjol-benjol?

Bentuk iritasi lokal ini berupa karang gigi, gigi berlubang, susunan gigi tidak rata atau adanya sisa akar gigi yang tidak dicabut. Hal ini sangat berbeda dengan keadaan ibu pada saat tidak hamil.

Faktor penyebab timbulnya gingivitis pada masa kehamilan dapat dibagi 2 bagian, yaitu penyebab primer dan sekunder.

1. Penyebab primer

Iritasi lokal tersebut adalah kalkulus/plak yang telah mengalami pengapuran, sisa-sisa makanan, tambalan kurang baik, gigi tiruan yang kurang baik.

2. Penyebab sekunder

Tindakan penanggulangan/perawatan radang gusi pada ibu hamil dibagi dalam 4 tahap, yaitu:

2. Tahap fungsional, tahap ini melakukan perbaikan fungsi gigi dan mulut seperti pembuatan tambalan pada gigi yang berlubang, pembuatan gigi tiruan, dll.

Penulis adalah dokter gigi di RS Al Islam Bandung।

http://bayikita.wordpress.com/2008/11/18/kerusakan-gigi-pada-ibu-hamil/

Implant Gigi

2008-11-30T00:54:00.000-08:00

Posted on October 24, 2008 by mazdink

Implant gigi adalah jangkar-jangkar logam yang dipasang dalam tulang rahang di bawah jaringan gusi untuk mendukung gigi tiruan yang menggantikan gigi asli. Berbeda dengan jenis penggantian gigi lainnya, seperti gigi-tiruan removable atau jembatan cekat yang direkatkan dengan gigi yang tertinggal, implant gigi benar-benar dipasang (ditanam) ke dalam tulang rahang di bawah jaringan gusi.

Implant-implant ini biasanya terbuat dari logam yang disebut titanium, yang bisa ditolerir oleh tubuh, dan gigi tiruan yang mirip dengan gigi asli kemudian dipasang pada implant tersebut. Sejak disetujui oleh ADA, implant gigi telah digunakan selama beberapa tahun, dan ratusan ribu telah dipasang. Karena adanya fenomena yang disebut “osteointegrasi” yang berarti bahwa tulang benar-benar terpasang dengan sendirinya pada implant, maka jangkar-jangkar ini menjadi fondasi kuat yang memungkinkan orang-orang yang kehilangan gigi bisa mengunyah secara efektif dan nyaman.

Orang Yang Memerlukan Implant

Setiap orang yang kehilangan gigi dan menginginkan efisiensi pengunyahan serta penampilan atau kemampuan berbicara yang baik, merupakan kandidat untuk menggunakan implant gigi. Implant bisa menjadi solusi apabila sulit atau bahkan tidak mungkin untuk memakai gigi-tiruan removable. Bagian-bagian rahang yang hilang akibat kecelakaan, penyakit, atau cacat lahir seringkali bisa direkonstruksi dengan menggunakan implant.

Kandidat pengguna implant gigi

Memiliki tulang rahang yang cukup, tulang yang cukup kuat, untuk mendukung implant.
Tidak memiliki penyakit atau kondisi yang dapat mengganggu penyembuhan setelah bedah implant (misalnya dibaetes tidak terkontrol, atau radiasi/kemoterapi untuk mengobati kanker).

Diskusi dengan ahli-bedah oral dan maxillofacial dan dokter-gigi restoratif (dokter gigi yang membuat gigi baru) akan menentukan apakah anda bisa menggunakan implant atau tidak. Usia bukanlah kendala untuk perawatan implant asalkan kondisi kesehatan baik. Fakta menunjukkan bahwa ribuan orang dari semua umur telah beralih ke implant gigi untuk mengganti gigi tunggal, beberapa gigi atau semua gigi yang tanggal.

Jenis-Jenis Implant

Implant gigi bisa dikelompokkan menjadi tiga kategori umum, yaitu: 1) endosteal, 2) subperiosteal, dan 3) transoteal.

Implant endosteal . Implant endosteal mirip bentuknya dengan akar gigi asli, walaupun beberapa diantaranya berbentuk seperti pisau. Implant-implant ini berfungsi sebagai sebuah pengganti untuk akar dari gigi yang hilang, dan dipasang secara langsung ke dalam tulang rahang dan dijangkar secara padat melalui sebuah proses yang disebut osteointegrasi. Proses ini memadukan tulang rahang dengan implant selama fase penyembuhan, yang menghasilkan sebuah fondasi kuat untuk gigi tiruan yang akan dipasang pada implant. Implant endosteal (“dalam tulang”) merupakan jenis implant gigi paling umum yang digunakan saat ini.

Implant-implant Subperiosteal atau Transosteal . Jenis implant ini kurang umum, tapi bisa direkomendasikan pada kondisi tertentu. Biasanya doker-gigi akan memilih implant yang terbaik untuk pasien.

Tahap-Tahap Pemasangan Implant

Pemeriksaan/konsultasi

Pemeriksaan mulut secara menyeluruh dan konsultasi medis oleh dokter yang bertanggungjawab untuk perawatan implant diperlukan untuk menentukan apakah seorang pasien bisa menggunakan implant gigi. Pemeriksa ini terdiri dari ahli-bedah mulut maxillofacial, dan dokter-gigi restoratif. Dengan bekerja sebagai tim, ahli-bedah mulut dan maxillofacial memasang implant, dan setelah penyembuhan terjadi, dokter-gigi restoratif terjadi merancang dan memasng gigi-tiruan yang didukung oleh implant. Selama pemeriksaan, pasien akan menceritakan riwayat medis yang lengkap. Pastikan untuk memberikan semua informasi, termasuk masalah-masalah kesehatan, alergi atau pengobatan yang anda sedang lakukan. Pemeriksaan bisa mencakup beberapa tipe sinar-X untuk memberikan informasi penting tentang tulang rahang dan model-model anatomi rahang, dan kemungkin tes darah tertentu. Berdasarkan hasil dari pemeriksaan ini, tim dental akan membahas semua aspek masalah dengan anda. Selanjutnya akan diputuskan apakah implant gigi cocok atau tidak.

Persiapan bedah implant

Berikut ini tips-tips yang membantu dalam mempersiapkan kunjungan bedah :

Pakaian – gunakan pakaian yang longgar dan nyaman dan lengannya bisa digulung dengan mudah. Jika anestesi intravenous atau sedasi akan diberikan, maka lengan baju yang ketat akan mempersulit.

Transportasi – Upayakan ada seseorang yang mengantar anda pergi dan pulang dari rumah sakit. Biasanya jika diberikan anestesi keadaan anda tidak stabil sehingga tidak aman jika mengemudi sendiri.

Diet – Jika anestesi intravenous atau sedasi akan diberikan, jangan makan atau minum selama sekurang-kurangnya 6 jam sebelum kunjungan bedah anda.

Pengobatan – Patuhi semua schedule pengobatan yang diberikan oleh ahli-bedah sebelum dilakukan bedah.

Anestesi – Teknologi anestesi modern saat ini memungkinkan untuk melakukan bedah yang kompleks dengan sedikit atau bahkan tidak ada rasa sakit. Selama bedah, satu atau lebih dari hal-hal berikut digunakan untuk mengendalikan nyeri dan kecemasan : anestesi lokal yang membuat daerah bedah mati rasa; nitrous oksida-nitrogen (terkadang di sebut “gas ketawa”) untuk membuat anda rileks; sedasi intravenous untuk relaksasi; dan anestesi umum yang membuat anda tertidur. Ahli-bedah akan menjelaskan secara rinci jenis anestesi yang paling cocok untuk kebutuhan anda.

Bedah Implant

Pemasangan implant gigi endosteal memerlukan dua prosedur bedah yang berbeda. Pada bedah “tahap 1” implant dipasang dalam tulang. Pada “tahap 2” yang terjadi setelah osteintegrasi selesai dan implant yang ditanam telah terjangkar dengan kuat pada tulang, maka alat penutup dilepas dan post-post khusus yang disebut “abutment” dipasang pada implant. Abutment-abutment ini diproyeksikan di atas garis gusi ke dalam mulut, dan gigi-tiruan akhir akan dipasang padanya. Bagian implant yang terpasang pada abutment dan dapat dilihat dalam mulut disebut sebagai prosthesa – bisa dari jenis “cekat” atau “removable”. Prostesa implant cekat bisa melibatkan satu gigi (kiri atas) atau beberapa gigi (kiri bawah). Sebuah prosthesa cekat hanya bisa dilepas oleh dokter gigi, tapi sudah dirancang sehingga bisa dibersihkan. Prostesa removable cukup mirip dengan gigi-tiruan utuh dan bisa dilepas dari mulut untuk dibersihkan.

Hal-Hal yang Terjadi Selama Bedah

Bedah Tahap 1

Prosedur bedah pertama untuk implant endosteal melibatkan pemasangan implant dalam tulang. Bedah ini terjadi di bagian ahli-bedah mulut dan maxillofacial, atau dalam setting rumah sakit. Anestesi lokal dengan sedatif ringan bisa digunakan, atau pada kasus tertentu anestesi umum bisa direkomendasikan.

Setelah dianestesi, ahli-bedah akan mengangkat kembali jaringan gusi untuk mengekspos tulang dan membuat sebuah lubang terukur dimana masing-masing implant akan disisipkan. Alat implant disisipkan dalam lubang, kemudian jaringan gusi diganti diatas alat implant dan kemudian dijahit. Prosedur bedah memerlukan beberapa jam jika banyak implant yang dipasang, dan setelah bedah diperlukan waktu untuk pemulihan sebelum balik ke rumah. Osteointegrasi akan mulai terjadi pada saat penyembuhan mulai terjadi, dan alat implant harus dijangkar dengan kuat oleh tulang dalam waktu empat sampai enam bulan.

Setelah Bedah Tahap 1

Segera setelah bedah, pasien mungkn diminta untuk menggigit kapas agar dapat menghentikan perdarahan, dan sebuah pak es mungkin digunakan selama 24 jam pertama untuk membantu mengurangi pembengkakan. Akan terjadi beberapa pembengkakan di daerah bedah implant selama sampai 72 jam setelah prosedur, serta beberapa diskolorasi kulit dan gusi selama beberapa hari. Pengobatan nyeri yang diberikan oleh dokter akan membantu menghilangkan rasa sakit, dan pasien sudah mampu melanjutkan aktivitas normal dalam waktu satu hari atau dua hari. Ahli-bedah juga bisa memberikan antibiotik. Akan terjad perdarahan kecil pada hari pembedahan tapi segera laporkan jika terjadi perdarahan yang berlebihan. Selama waktu ini, sebuah diet lunak direkomendasikan sehingga tidak memberikan tekanan pada implant yang baru, dan ahli-bedah akan memberikan instruksi-instruksi penting tentang bagaimana cara membersihkan mulut. Jika pasien menggunakan gugu-tiruan, maka ahli-bedah atau dokter-gigi restoratif bisa memasang sebuah lining lunak sehingga pasien bisa mengenakannnya dengan nyaman selama masa penyembuhan atau dibiarkan selama periode waktu yang singkat. Jika ruang-ruang yang diakibatkan oleh gigi yang tanggal harus diisi sementara penyembuhan terjadi, maka gigi temporer yang terlihat alami bisa dibuat. Jahitan yang dipasang setelah bedah akan larut dan anda akan kembali ke ahli-bedah untuk mengeluarkannya.

Bedah Tahap 2

Prosedur bedah ke-dua terjadi setelah penyembuhan dari bedah Tahap 1 sempurna. Untuk implant-implant endosteal yang berosteointegrasi, penyembuhan biasanya memerlukan waktu 4-6 bulan. Daerah mulut yang mengalami lebih banyak tekanan pengunyahan mungkin memerlukan periode penyembuhan yang lebih lama, kemungkinan sampai delapan bulan.

Pada kunjungan bedah kedua, yang biasanya dilakukan di kantor ahli-beda dengan menggunakan anestesi lokal, jaringan gusi dibuka untuk mengekspos alat implant. Alat ini diperiksa untuk memverifikasi osteointegrasi yang memuaskan, post-post penyembuhan dipasang pada alat tersebut. Jika jahitan dipasang, maka akan larut atau dikeluarkan oleh ahli-bedah. Tahap bedah kedua ini relatif singkat, dan bisa kembali normal dalam waktu satu atau dua hari atau bahkan lebih cepat.

Setelah Bedah Tahap 2

Setelah kembali ke rumah, makan makanan yang lunak dan ikuti instruksi kesehatan mulut yang diberikan oleh ahli-bedah. Akan terjadi beberapa perdarahan kecil, tapi jika terjadi perdarahan yang berlebihan segera hubungi dokter. Pasien akan kembali ke ahli-bedah dalam beberapa hari sehingga proses penyembuhan bisa dipantau, dan jika pasien mengenakan sebuah gigi-tiruan, bisa dipasang langsung atau sesaat setelah bedah. Ini akan ditentukan oleh dokter gigi secara individual. Pak es yang diaplikasikan pada wajah setelah bedah bisa membantu megurangi pembengkakan.

Pembuatan Gigi Baru

Apabila jaringan gusi telah sembuh sempurna setelah bedah Tahap 2, maka pasie telah siap untuk mengunjungi dokter-gigi restoratif dan memulai pembuatan gigi-tiruan yang baru. Dokter-gigi akan membuat pencetakan mulut, dan registrasi-registrasi gigitan yang mencatat mekanisme-mekanisme baru untuk kepaduan rahang, kemudian pencetakan digunakan untuk membuat model rahang dan gigi yang tersisa. Gigi-tiruan akan dibuat berdasarkan model-model ini. Gigi-tiruan (yang disebut “restorasi” atau “prostesa”) bisa berupa gigi yang removable, cekat, atau kombinasi antara keduanya.

Prostesa removable mirip degan gigi-tiruan konvensional atau gigi-tiruan parsial, yang bisa dikeluarkan dari mulut untuk dibersihkan, kelebihannya adalah diperkuat pada abutmen implant dengan clip, magnet atau alat-alat lain. Gigi-tiruan dan jaringan gusi dipasang pada kerangka-logam, dan kerangka ini terpasang pada abutment implant.

Prostesa cekat bisa mengganti satu gigi, beberapa gigi atau bahkan semua gigi. Gigi-tiruan disekrup ke dalam abutment, atau disemen pada abutment, dan dipertahankan kuat pada tempatnya. Jika beberapa gigi alami tetap berada dalam mulut, maka bagian-bagian dari prostesa bisa dihubungkan dengan beberapa dari gigi ini. Sebuah prostesa cekat hanya bisa dilepaskan oleh dokter-gigi, dan sudah dirancang khusus untuk memungkinkan anda membershkannya. Jika sebuah prostesa cekat menggantikan banyak gigi, maka gigi tiruan akan dipasang pada sebuah kerangka logam yang harus sesuai dengan abutment implant secara tepat. Dokter gigi restoratif mungkin akan menyuruh pasien untuk mengenakan prostesa secara sementara unutk memastikan kecocokannya, sebelum pemasangan akhir pada abutment.

Mungkin diperlukan beberapa kunjungan untuk menyempurnakan prostesa, tergantung pada kompleksitas permasalahan.

Risiko dan Komplikasi

Bedah implant gigi memiliki tingkat keberhasilan yang tinggi, tapi sebagaimana dengan prosedur bedah lainnya. Efek samping tertentu atau komplikasi juga bisa terjadi. Anda harus memahami hal ini sebelum melakukan bedah implant. Ahli-bedah akan menjawa setiap pertnayaan anda tentang risiko-risiko yang mungkin berikut ini :

Pembengkakan merupakan sebuah reaksi normal tehradap setiap prposedur bedah dan jumlah pembengkakan tergantung pada seberapa luas bedah tersebut. Pembengkakan normal akan mencapai puncaknya pada 48 jam, kemudian sembuh secara perlahan. Jika pembengkakan memburuk setelah 48 jam, hubungi dokter.
Luka memar terkadang terjadi di daerah-daerah yang berdekatan dengan tempat bedah. Setiap dislokasi akibat luka memar akan hilang dalam beberapa hari setelah bedah.
Nyeri sedang umum terjadi selama 24-48 jam setelah bedah, dan pengobatan nyeri mungkin diperlukan. Jika nyeri parah terus menerus yang tidak bisa diredakan dengan obat nyeri yang diresepkan, segera hubungi dokter.
Trismus, atau kekakuan otot-otot rahang, bisa diakibatkan oleh pembengkakan setelah bedah. Ketika pembengkakan berkurang, maka trismus akan hilang.
Infeksi sangat jarang terjadi setelah bedah implant tapi terkadang terjadi sebuah infeksi. Jika demam, pembengkakan terus-menerus, nyeri atau pus terjadi setelah bedah, segera hubungi ahli-bedah.
Selalu ada potensi kegagalan implant. Ini bisa diakibatkan oleh beberapa faktor, diantaranya adlaah penolakan oleh tubuh atau perawatan yang tidak meamdai oleh pasien setelah bedah.
Injury berpotensi terjadi pada gigi dan akar sekitarnya, isian atau bridgework.
Kehilangan atau perubahan sensasi saraf, yang menghasilkan mati-rasa atau sensasi gatal pada bibir bawah, lidah, pipi, dagu, gusi atau gigi jarang terjadi jika implant ditempatkan dalam rahang bawah dan saraf di dekatnya teriritasi. Biasanya ini hanya berlangsung sementara, walaupun sangat jarang bisa permanen. Setiap tindakan pencegahan dilakukan oleh dokter untuk menghindari saraf-saraf ini.
Komplikasi sinus, seperti drainase atau nyeri (sinusitis), terkadan terjadi jika implant dipasang dalam rahang atas dan sinus menjadi terlibat. Ini bisa memelrukan perawatan lebih lanjut atua juga tiga, tapi setiap gejala sinus harus dilaporkan kepada dokter.
Perdarahan bisa terjadi setelah dilakukannya bedah tipe apapun, tapi harus dikontrol dengan mudah dan terdiri dari perdarahan sesekali selama 24-48 jam pertama. Jarang terjadi perdarahan tersebut berlebihan atau berlangsung lama, jika ini terjadi segera hubungi dokter.
Nyeri TMJ (sendi rahang) atau fungsi abnormal jarang terjadi setelah bedah implant, tapi ini bisa terjadi. Jika benar-benar terjadi, perawatan lebih lanjut mungkin diperlukan.
Kehilangan tulang jarang terjadi, tapi bisa terjadi di sekitar implant jika kesehatan mulut yang baik dipertahankan atau jika tekanan berlebihan diberikan pada implant.
Fraktur rahang – sangat jarang diperlukan manipulasi untuk pemasangan implant pada rahang bawah yang dapat menyebabkan fraktur pada tulang-rahang, khususnya jika rahang tipis. Sinar-X akan menunjnukkan lokasi fraktur, dan ahli-bedah mulut dan maxillofacial bisa mengatasi masalah tersebut.

Merawat Implant dan Restorasi

Ahli-bedah dan dokter-gigi restoratif akan menjadwalkan kunjungan check-up berkala untuk memastikan rahang anda sehat dan implant serta prostesa berfungsi dengan baik. Akan tetapi, sama dengan perawatan profesiona yang regular, perawatan anda sendiri terhadap implant dan prostesa juga penting. Berikut ini adalah panduan-panduan untuk perawatan implant yang lebih baik.

Praktekkan kesehatan mulut dirumah secara cermat, ikuti instruksi dokter-gigi dan ahli-kesehatan. Post-post abutment, dibawah prostesa, gigi-tiruan, dan jaringan gusi harus dijaga agar tetap bersih. Perawatan di rumah dapat membantu seperti sikat khusus dan penyela (floss) dapat membantu mencapai hal ini. Jika anda tidak menjaga agar implant dan prostesa tetap bersih, maka implant anda mungkin gagal.
Merokok dan konsumsi alkohol berlebian serta mengunyah makanan keras seperti es atau permen keras dapat menyebabkan kerusakan pada implant dan menyebabkannya gagal.

Meski tidak jaminan 100 persen tentang keberhasilan dengan implant gigi, namun dengan perencanaan yang cermat oleh ahli-bedah dan dokter-gigi restoratif sebelum bedah dan perawatan yang baik oleh anda sendiri, maka implant bisa digunakan bahkan sampai bertahun-tahun. Sebenarnya, literatur sekarang telah melaporkan bahwa 90 persen atau lebih implant telah berhasil dipertahankan selama sampai 15-20 tahun. Ribuan orang kembali menjadi normal makan, berbicara dan tertawa tanpa rasa sakit melalui penggunaan dental.

Filed under: Dentistry | Tagged: gigi, implan, implant, जेनिस

http://penerjemahonline.wordpress.com/2008/10/24/implant-gigi/

Fakultas Kedokteran Gigi

2008-11-30T00:40:00.000-08:00

FKG Universitas Indonesia (UI)
Jl. Salemba Raya No. 4
Jakarta Pusat, Indonesia
Tel. (021) 31930270
Fax. (021) 31931412
www.fkg.ui.ac.id

FKG Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM)
Jl. Bulak Sumur
Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
Tel. (62-274) 515307, 902540
Fax. (62-274) 515307
www.ugm.ac.id/sarjana/indexfak.php?fak=10

FKG Universitas Padjadjaran (UNPAD)
Jl. Sekeloa Selatan No. 1
Bandung, Indonesia
Tel./Fax. (62-22) 2504985
www.unpad.ac.id/fakultas_gigi.html

FKG Universitas Airlangga (UNAIR)
Jl. Mayjen. Prof. Dr. Moestopo No. 47
Surabaya 60132, Indonesia
Tel. (62-31) 5030255
Fax. (62-31) 5020256
www.fkg.unair.ac.id

FKG Universitas Trisakti
Jl. Kyai Tapa, Grogol
Jakarta, Indonesia
Tel. (62-21) 5672731
Fax. (62-21) 5655787
www.trisakti.ac.id

FKG. Universitas Prof. Dr. Moestopo (Beragama)
Jl. Bintaro Permai Raya 3
Jakarta 12330
Indonesia
Tel. (021)-73885251, 73885254
Fax. (021) 73885253
www.moestopo.web.id

FKG Universitas Sumatera Utara
Jl. Alumni No. 2, Kampus USU
Medan, Indonesia
Tel. (62-61) 8216131
Fax. (62-61) 8213421
http://www.usu.ac.id/webusu03/fakultas/fkg/fkg.htm

FKG Universitas Mahasaraswati
Jl. Kamboja 11A
Denpasar, Bali
Indonesia
Tel./Fax. (62-361) 261278
www.unmas.org/fkg.htm

FKG Universitas Hasanuddin
Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan KM 10
Kampus Tamalanrea
Ujung Pandang, Indonesia
Tel./Fax. (62-411) 512012
www.unhas.ac.id

FKG Universitas Jember
Jl. Kalimantan I No. 58
Jember, Jawa Timur 68121
Indonesia
Tel. (62-331) 333536
Fax. (62-331) 339029
http://www.unej.ac.id/fakultas/fkg/index.html

FKG Universitas Baiturrahmah
Jl. Raya Bypass, Aiepacah Padang KM 15
Sumatera Barat, Indonesia
Tel. (62-751) 28053
Fax. (62-751) 26793

FKG Universitas Hang Tuah
Jl Abdul Rachman Hakim No 150
Surabaya, Indonesia
Tel. (62-31) 594 5894
www.hangtuah.ac.id

Universitas Muhamadyah Yogyakarta (UMY)
Jl. Pendidikan 21, Sonopakis Bantul,
Yogyakarta.
Tel. (62-274) 374320.
www.fk.umy.ac.id/dentistry

Program Studi Kedokteran Gigi Universitas Sriwijaya
DIII Teknik Gigi FK-Unsri
Jl. Srijayanegara Bukit Besar
Palembang 30130

Program Studi Kedokteran Gigi Universitas Sam Ratulangi
Kampus Unsrat
Manado 95115

Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Syiah Kuala
Darussalam - Banda Aceh 23111
Tel. (62-651) 52053; 536333; 51977
Fax. (62-651) 52053

written by indah.muhariani